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sapiens and critical thinking
sapiens and critical thinking

In this work it is understood by applying Sapiens what is critical thinking and why is it so important to the methodology of Sapiens.

Once this work is done, we establish at the end of the document the similarities and differences between the methodology of Sapiens with critical thinking and we conclude that they are compatible since they cover the same problem (mistrust and questioning of the status quo), but occupying different explanatory spaces: while Sapiens helps in how to understand and connect knowledge, critical thinking questions information and knowledge to ensure that what we understand has coherence and veracity

BASIC INDEX

Introduction

The Sapiens methodology presents a remarkable closeness to critical thinking. Both positions start from the need to question the status quo and do so from the disagreement with what we are told is reality and knowledge. To satisfy this disagreement, both are equipped with tools that allow them to go beyond what is known, generating new cognitive content.

Sapiens' first disagreement comes from his belief that everything is connected and, therefore, we cannot know a thing from a single prism (as is instilled in today's society of specialization) but it is necessary to understand things from a holistic perspective . The second disagreement for which he applies critical thinking is one of the most serious problems in today's society: post-truth and infoxication. Sapiens was born in this way to offer a tool that facilitates the understanding of people, distancing them from a simplistic vision of their object of study and the world in general.

We can thus understand that Sapiens draws on both systems theory and critical thinking, since it uses the first to give way to the second. In other words, Sapiens seeks to increase our understanding of reality without accepting what is given by our context (critical thinking) and for this, it proposes five methods that allow us an approach towards the knowledge of the object of study in relation to the rest of the objects , belonging to your system and to other systems (systems theory).

Critical thinking emerges today to fight post-truth and infoxication. If analytical capacity and critical thinking are not used, we will be opening the way to any theater of the day. Since the time of the Emperor Livy, the performances in the Colosseum were carried out in order to cover up controversial issues and entertain the population. This phenomenon is familiar to us in our time, where new technologies and social networks give us facilities to access information but not to distinguish between grain and chaff. Critical thinking is born out of philosophical wonder (there is something behind reality!), Curiosity and questioning (need to understand, get out of the status quo, to go beyond what is our current known reality).

SEMANTIC METHOD

WHAT IS CRITICISM

Common meaning: think against something or someone and make it public.

Etymology: the critical word is derived from the word criterion (the concept, the mechanism), the same Greek root kri (n) - (derived from the Proto-Indo-European * kr̥n-, which in Latin also gives words like secretum, discernere), in its object to discern the truth by showing, previously, the fallacy or error (trial and error).

From the Latin criticus-a-um, which in the medical language designated the dangerous or decisive state of a patient and that in philology designates in masculine the one who is judge of the works of the spirit and in neutral (criticism) designates critical philology. It is a loan from the Greek () meaning capable of judging, an adjective derived with a relationship suffix -ikos.

The verb is also associated with an Indo-European root * skribh which indicates to cut, separate and discern.

According to Google: Set of opinions or judgments that respond to an analysis and that can be positive or negative.

Criticize according to the RAE: Analyze something in detail and assess it according to the criteria of the subject in question.

Critical according to the RAE: Inclined to judge facts and conduct generally unfavorably.

According to the RAE: Judgment expressed, generally publicly, about a show, an artistic work, etc.

According to the Larousse French Dictionary: Examen détaillé visant à établir la vérité, l'authenticité de quelque chose (Translation: Detailed examination that seeks to establish the truth, the authenticity of something).

According to Oxford Languages: Evaluate (a theory or practice) in a detailed and analytical way. A detailed analysis and assessment of something, especially a literary, philosophical, or political theory.

WHAT IS THOUGHT

According to Google: People's ability to form ideas and representations of reality in their minds, relating one to another.

WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING

From the definitions of "thought" and "criticize / criticize", we can intuit that critical thinking is the ability to form ideas and representations of reality (thought) from carefully analyzing and judging what is thought about (review). In other words, it is a way of trying to go beyond the current representation of reality and seek to refine the understanding of it through a series of intellectual procedures. However, the meaning of the term "critical thinking" is not limited to sum of "thought" and "criticism" Rather, it has been used evoking other different meanings, which generates conceptual difficulties for us.. Therefore, we will present the most relevant below to give the term our own meaning.

According to Ennis (1992), is a process of reflection in search of the natural truth of things. According to Elder & Paul (2003), they interpret it as the way of thinking about any topic, content or problem with intellectual patterns or standards, with the purpose of improving the quality of thought. In this definition there are three components: analysis, evaluation and creativity.

According to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IPgdBai7HxY
Attitude to analyze and evaluate statements (opinions) based on questioning reality (asking questions), attitude (non-conformism), concern to understand things, autonomy (ability to give ourselves norms, identify and define our own philosophy of life). It is not a destructive criticism, it is an analysis of what is said or written.

How to do it? Take nothing for granted, but without falling into skepticism.

According to Geoff Pynn (Northern Illinois University), critical thinking is the type of thinking where the arguments that justify what we think have been carefully studied. Make sure we have good (not ethical, but probably true) reasons to believe in something. We are rational and we want to be reasonable with critical thinking.

The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking defines critical thinking as an intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing and / or evaluating information collected or generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to belief and action ”. The critical thinking process prevents our mind from jumping directly to conclusions.

It could be summed up by saying that critical thinking is careful, goal-directed thinking. According to José Carlos Ruiz (philosopher and popularizer), the ability that we all have to understand our world in interrelation with the world of others.

According to the field of education: In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking expresses a practical program to achieve an educational goal. This educational objective is the recognition, adoption, and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. This adoption and implementation, in turn, consists of acquiring the knowledge, skills and dispositions of a critical thinker.

Our definition of critical thinking

It is a type of thinking that comes from thinking critically. Both the action (think) and the result (thought) require an attitude or critical spirit that casts doubt on any statement or opinion. Or, in other words, there must be an ambition to understand and approach the truth of everything. Following this, we will be able to speak of capacity as it will try to resolve the doubt or mistrust from an analysis (critical analysis) that judges and evaluates a reality, fact or proposition autonomously. The result of this process will be a coherent thought, built from reasons that confirm its validity.

Critical thinking starts from our natural rationality to act reasonably.

In addition, this way of thinking can be adopted as a "philosophy of life", thanks to which autonomy and independence will be achieved since we will have the ability to give ourselves norms, identify and define our identity and establish our own philosophy of life. It is precisely this capacity that has tried to promote from the education in institutes and universities, taking critical thinking much of its importance in this area.

COMPARATIVE METHOD

Difference of critical thinking with other methods

If critical thinking is broadly conceived to cover any careful thinking on any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be types of critical thinking, if done carefully. Historically, "critical thinking" and "problem solving" were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of the evaluation of intellectual products, then you will be dissatisfied with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.

Difference from Bloom's taxonomy

Comprehension and application goals, as the names indicate, involve understanding and applying information. Critical thinking skills and abilities appear in the three highest categories of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The condensed version of Bloom's taxonomy offers the following examples of objectives at these levels:

Analysis objectives: ability to recognize undeclared assumptions, ability to check the consistency of hypotheses with given information and assumptions, ability to recognize general techniques used in advertising, propaganda and other persuasive materials Synthesis objectives: organize ideas and statements in writing, ability to propose ways of testing a hypothesis, ability to formulate and modify hypotheses.

Evaluation objectives: ability to indicate logical fallacies, comparison of the main theories about particular cultures.

The analysis, synthesis, and evaluation goals of Bloom's taxonomy came to be collectively referred to as "higher-order thinking skills" (Tankersley 2005: ch. 5).

Although the analysis-synthesis-evaluation sequence mimics the logical analysis phases of Dewey's (1933) reflective thinking process, Bloom's taxonomy has not generally been adopted as a model for a critical thinking process. While praising the inspiring value of his relationship of five categories of thought goals to one category of recall goals, Ennis (1981b) notes that the categories lack criteria applicable to all topics and domains. For example, analysis in chemistry is so different from analysis in the literature that there is little point in teaching analysis as a general type of thinking. Furthermore, the postulated hierarchy seems questionable at the highest levels of Bloom's taxonomy. For example, the ability to indicate logical fallacies hardly seems more complex than the ability to organize statements and ideas in writing.

A revised version of Bloom's taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) distinguishes the intended cognitive process in an educational objective (such as being able to remember, compare, or verify) from the objective's informational content ("knowledge"), which can be factual. , conceptual, procedural or metacognitive. The result is a list of six main types of teacher-led cognitive processes: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The authors maintain the idea of ​​a hierarchy of increasing complexity, but recognize some overlap, for example, between understanding and application. And they maintain the idea that critical thinking and problem solving go through the most complex cognitive processes. The terms 'critical thinking' and 'problem solving' write:

In the revised taxonomy, only a few subcategories, such as infer, have enough points in common to be treated as a distinct critical thinking ability that could be taught and evaluated as a general ability.

Therefore, the so-called "higher order thinking skills" at the higher levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation of the taxonomy are only critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their evaluation.

Difference between critical thinking and creative thinking

El creative thinking, overlaps with critical thinking. Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat, requires creative imagination to construct plausible explanatory hypotheses. Similarly, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate, requires creativity to come up with options. Rather, creativity in any field must be balanced by a critical appraisal of the draft of the painting or novel or mathematical theory.

Differentiation with other expressions close to critical thinking

- Difference between critical thinking and spirit
The critical spirit refers to the attitude that doubts and suspects the veracity of statements, opinions or reality itself. For this reason, Elder and Paul consider critical thinking to be one of the seven mental aptitudes for critical thinking.

- Difference between critical thinking and critical theory. Taken from a seminar at Columbia University in which I was able to participate. Professor Bernard E. Harcourt.
Critical theory is not the same as critical thinking. Critical theory is based on six elements: the reflexivity of the critic; the central importance of mindset ideas / concepts as necessary to mediate the objection; the method of immanent criticism; the method of critical ideology; the very close relationship between theory and practice (changing the world); and change the world from the idea of ​​emancipation. As we can see, critical theory has a more political component, linked to the transformation of the system since it is nourished in much of the criticism of Marx. Critical thinking, on the other hand, can be applied to question more concrete or simple things, such as a sentence.

- Difference between critical thinking and critical philosophy: Write and complete with Kant. Taken from a seminar at Columbia University in which I was able to participate. Professor Bernard E. Harcourt.

When we speak of critical philosophy, most of the time we refer to Kant and the Kantian tradition. Kant's critical philosophy had two paths, in addition to critical theory. The confrontations of the reading of these produced the different conceptions of what criticism is. In Kant, there was a way to link the notion of criticism to the Latin notion of cri (distinction, differentiation between true and false, illusion). Creating this distinction is work that leans in the direction of trying to find the truth. The second work leans towards the possibility of knowing what is considered true and at the same time these Kantian structures of conditions of possibility of knowing deviate the idea that something can only be known through the condition of historical possibility, so that what we must study is genealogy, the conditions and possibilities of thinking as we do today.

From these annotations we can understand that Dewey's critical thought is very close to this current that arises from Kant's thought that, under the motto of sapere aude (dare to know), tries to distinguish between what is true and what is false from the reason.

However, we cannot affirm that they are the same thing, since critical thinking extends this Kantian idea with other more practical, introspective and creative aspects.

CLASSIFICATION METHOD

If the core of critical thinking, as we have seen in the semantic method, is goal-directed thoughtful thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its supposed scope, its supposed aim, one's criteria, and one's threshold for being careful. , and the component of thinking that one focuses on.

According to its scope:
- Limited to the base of observations and experiments (Dewey)
- It reaches the evaluation of the products of thought.

According to your objective:
- Formation of a judgment
- They allow actions and beliefs as a result of the critical thinking process.

According to the criteria to be careful (These variant specifications of standards for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with each other):
- "intellectually disciplined" (Scriven and Paul 1987)
- "reasonable" (Ennis 1991). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to base the concept of critical thinking on the concept of rationality, which they understand as the combination of epistemic rationality (adapting beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing the fulfillment of goals); a critical thinker, in his view, is someone with "a propensity to override the suboptimal responses of the autonomous mind."
- "skillful" (Lipman 1987) - "the consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the foundations that sustain it and the additional conclusions to which it tends" (Dewey 1910, 1933);

According to the thought component:
- Suspension of judgment during thought (Dewey and Mcpeck)
- Investigation while trial is suspended (Bailin and Battersby 2009)
- The resulting judgment (Facione 1990a)
- The subsequent emotional response to this judgment (Siegel 1988).

Whether or not it includes a moral component
- Dewey, like most thinkers, separates critical thinking with the development of social comparison among schoolchildren.
- Ennis adds to critical thinking the description that it is essential to be able to care about the dignity and worth of each person.

SYSTEMIC METHOD

Critical thinking within thought

VIEW https://medicoplus.com/psicologia/tipos-pensamiento

Critical thinking is one of the 24 main types of thinking and interacts with other types of thinking, such as:
- Conceptual thinking
- Interrogative thinking
- Investigative thinking
- Divergent thinking
- Logical thinking
- Systems thinking
- Reflective thinking
- Deductive thinking

Critical thinking within epistemology

Critical thinking occupies an important place within the epistemological currents, being one of the five positions regarding trust in the possibility of knowing.

A) Dogmatism
B) Skepticism
C) Subjectivism and relativism
D) Pragmatism
E) Criticism or critical thinking

It is a position contrary to dogmatism since it is questioned by the sources of knowledge with distrust in order to be able to confirm with certainty that it understands what it knows and that this knowledge is reliable.

Critical thinking in academic disciplines

Critical thinking is closely linked with philosophy, is part of the reason for being of this. Philosophy is nothing other than the search for knowledge based on raising some fundamental questions that help to position ourselves and approach it. They can be seen under this definition as similar, with the difference that philosophy structures and systematizes critical thinking in an academic discipline.

In addition, we can see critical thinking in other disciplines and other work applications, although with less incidence to philosophy, such as journalism, or a judge who has to evaluate and keep the true information to establish a correct judgment.

Historical method

John Dewey introduced the term "critical thinking" as the name of an educational objective, which identified with a scientific mental attitude.

He defined it as "Active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the foundations that sustain it and the subsequent conclusions to which it tends."

Thus, Dewey identified it as a habit of such regard as a scientific attitude. His lengthy quotations from Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose the development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.

Dewey's ideas were put into practice by some of the schools that participated in the Eight Year Study in the 1930s sponsored by the Association for Progressive Education in America. For this study, 300 universities agreed to consider for admission graduates from 30 selected high schools or school systems across the country who experimented with content and teaching methods, even if the graduates had not completed the prescribed high school curriculum. at that moment. One purpose of the study was to discover through exploration and experimentation how high schools in the United States could serve youth more effectively (Aikin 1942). In particular, school officials believed that young people in a democracy should develop the habit of reflective thinking and the ability to solve problems (Aikin 1942: 81). Therefore, students' work in the classroom consisted more often of a problem to be solved than a lesson to be learned. Especially in math and science, schools strove to give students experience in clear and logical thinking as they solved problems.

Critical or reflective thinking originates with the perception of a problem. It is a quality of thinking that operates in an effort to solve the problem and reach a tentative conclusion that is supported by all available data. Really It is a problem-solving process that requires the use of creative acumen, intellectual honesty, and good judgment. It is the basis of the scientific research method. The success of democracy depends largely on the willingness and ability of citizens to think critically and reflectively about the problems they must necessarily face, and improving the quality of their thinking is one of the main goals of education. (Progressive Education Association Commission on the Relationship between School and University, 1943: 745–746)

In 1933, Dewey published an extensively rewritten edition of his How we think, with the subtitle "A reaffirmation of the relationship of reflective thinking with the educational process." Although the reformulation preserves the basic structure and content of the original book, Dewey made a number of changes.

He rewrote and simplified his logical analysis of the reflection process, made his ideas clearer and more defined, replaced the terms 'induction' and 'deduction' by the phrases 'control of data and evidence' and 'control of reasoning and concepts', he added more illustrations, rearranged chapters, and revised parts on teaching to reflect changes in schools since 1910.

Glaser (1941) reports in his doctoral thesis the method and results of an experiment in the development of critical thinking performed in the fall of 1938. He defines critical thinking as Dewey defined reflective thinking:

Critical thinking demands a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the supporting evidence and the additional conclusions to which it tends. (Glaser 1941:6; cf. Dewey 1910:6; Dewey 1933:9).

The aspect of critical thinking that seems most susceptible to general improvement is the attitude of being willing to reflectively consider problems and issues that fall within the realm of one's own experience. An attitude of wanting evidence of beliefs is more subject to general transference. The development of the ability to apply logical reasoning and research methods, however, appears to be specifically related to, and indeed limited by, the acquisition of pertinent knowledge and facts related to the problem or topic toward which one is going. direct thought. (Glaser 1941: 175)

The results of the repeated tests and the observable behavior indicated that the students in the intervention group maintained their growth in the ability to think critically for at least six months after the special instruction.

In 1948, a group of US college examiners decided to develop educational goal taxonomies with a common vocabulary that they could use to communicate with each other about test items. The first of these taxonomies, for the cognitive domain, appeared in 1956 (Bloom et al. 1956) and included critical thinking objectives. It is known as Bloom's taxonomy. A second taxonomy, for the affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia 1964), and a third taxonomy, for the psychomotor domain (Simpson 1966-67), appeared later. Each of the taxonomies is hierarchical, and the achievement of a higher educational objective supposedly requires the achievement of corresponding lower educational objectives.

Bloom's taxonomy has six main categories. From least to greatest, they are knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Within each category, there are subcategories, also ordered hierarchically from the educational prior to the educational later. The lowest category, although called "knowledge", is limited to the objectives of remembering information and being able to remember or recognize it, without much transformation beyond organizing it (Bloom et al. 1956: 28-29). The top five categories are collectively called "intellectual abilities and skills" (Bloom et al. 1956: 204). The term is just another name for critical thinking skills and abilities:

Although information or knowledge is recognized as an important result of education, very few teachers would be satisfied with considering this as the main or only result of instruction. What is needed is some evidence that students can do something with their knowledge, that is, that they can apply the information to new situations and problems. Students are also expected to acquire generalized techniques for tackling new problems and new materials. Thus, it is expected that when the student encounters a new problem or situation, he / she will select an appropriate technique to attack it and will provide the necessary information, both facts and principles. This has been labeled "critical thinking" by some, "reflective thinking" by Dewey and others, and "problem solving" by others.

Comprehension and application goals, as the names indicate, involve understanding and applying information. Critical thinking skills and abilities appear in the three highest categories of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The condensed version of Bloom's taxonomy (Bloom et al. 1956: 201-207) offers the following examples of targets at these levels:

Analysis objectives: ability to recognize undeclared assumptions, ability to check the consistency of hypotheses with given information and assumptions, ability to recognize general techniques used in advertising, propaganda and other persuasive materials Synthesis objectives: organize ideas and statements in writing, ability to propose ways of testing a hypothesis, ability to formulate and modify hypotheses.

Evaluation objectives: ability to indicate logical fallacies, comparison of the main theories about particular cultures.

The analysis, synthesis, and evaluation goals of Bloom's taxonomy came to be collectively referred to as "higher-order thinking skills" (Tankersley 2005: ch. 5). Although the analysis-synthesis-evaluation sequence mimics Dewey's (1933) phases of the logical analysis of the reflective thinking process, it has not generally been adopted as a model for a critical thinking process. While praising the inspiring value of his relationship of five categories of thought goals to one category of recall goals, Ennis (1981b) notes that the categories lack criteria applicable to all topics and domains.. For example, analysis in chemistry is so different from analysis in the literature that there is little point in teaching analysis as a general type of thinking. Further, the postulated hierarchy seems questionable at the highest levels of Bloom's taxonomy. For example, the ability to indicate logical fallacies hardly seems more complex than the ability to organize statements and ideas in writing.

A revised version of Bloom's taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) distinguishes the cognitive process intended in an educational objective (such as being able to remember, compare or verify) from the informational content of the objective ("knowledge"), which can be factual, conceptual, procedural or metacognitive. The result is the so-called "Taxonomy Table" with four rows for the types of informational content and six columns for the six main types of cognitive processes. The authors name the types of cognitive processes by verbs, to indicate their state as mental activities. Rename the category 'understanding' to 'understand' and the category 'synthesis' to 'create', and change the order of synthesis and evaluation. The result is a list of six main types of teacher-led cognitive processes: remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The authors maintain the idea of ​​a hierarchy of increasing complexity, but recognize some overlap, for example, between understanding and application. And they maintain the idea that critical thinking and problem solving go through the most complex cognitive processes. The terms 'critical thinking' and 'problem solving' write:

They are widely used and tend to become 'cornerstones' of curriculum emphasis. Both generally include a variety of activities that could be classified into disparate cells in the Taxonomy Table. That is, in any given case, goals that involve problem solving and critical thinking are likely to require cognitive processes in several categories in the process dimension. For example, thinking critically about a topic probably involves some conceptual knowledge to analyze the topic. Then one can evaluate different perspectives in terms of the criteria and perhaps create a novel but defensible perspective on this topic. (Anderson et al. 2001: 269-270; italics in original)

In the revised taxonomy, only a few subcategories, such as infer, have enough points in common to be treated as a distinct critical thinking ability that could be taught and evaluated as a general ability.

A historical contribution to philosophical scholarship on the concept of critical thinking was a 1962 article in the Harvard Educational Review by Robert H. Ennis, entitled “A Concept of Critical Thinking: A Proposed Basis for Research in Teaching and Assessment critical thinking ability ”(Ennis 1962). Ennis took as his starting point a conception of critical thinking presented by B. Othanel Smith:

We will consider thinking in terms of the operations involved in examining statements that we, or others, may believe. One speaker states, for example, that "Freedom means that decisions in America's productive endeavor are not made in the mind of a bureaucracy but in the free market." Now, if we were to find out what this statement means and to determine whether we accept or reject it, we would be engaged in a thought that, for lack of a better term, we will call critical thinking. If one wishes to say that this is just a form of problem solving in which the purpose is to decide whether or not what is said is reliable, we will not object. But for our purposes we choose to call it critical thinking. (Smith 1953: 130)

Adding a normative component to this conception, Ennis defined critical thinking as "the correct evaluation of statements" (Ennis 1962: 83). Based on this definition, he distinguished 12 “aspects” of critical thinking corresponding to types or aspects of statements, such as judging whether an observation statement is reliable and grasping the meaning of a statement. He noted that it did not include judging statements of value. Traversing the 12 aspects, he distinguished three dimensions of critical thinking: logic (judge the relationships between the meanings of words and sentences), criterion (knowledge of the criteria to judge the statements) and pragmatic (the impression of the underlying purpose). For each aspect, Ennis described the applicable dimensions, including the criteria.

In the 1980s and 1983s there was an increase in attention to the development of thinking skills. The annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Educational Reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators of all levels since its inception in XNUMX. In XNUMX, the College Entrance Examination Board proclaimed reasoning as one of the six basic academic competencies college students need. Education departments in the United States and around the world began to include thinking goals in their curriculum guidelines for school subjects.

Critical thinking is the process of thinking about ideas or situations in order to fully understand them, identify their implications, pass judgment, and / or guide decision-making. Critical thinking includes skills such as questioning, predicting, analyzing, synthesizing, examining opinions, identifying values ​​and problems, detecting biases, and distinguishing between alternatives. Students who are taught these skills become critical thinkers who can move beyond superficial conclusions toward a deeper understanding of the problems they are examining. They may participate in a research process in which they explore complex and multifaceted questions, and questions for which there may not be clear answers.

Sweden holds schools responsible for ensuring that each pupil who completes compulsory school “can use critical thinking and independently formulate points of view based on knowledge and ethical considerations”. At the university level, a new wave of introductory logic textbooks, initiated by Kahane (1971), applied the tools of logic to contemporary social and political problems. In his wake, North American colleges and universities transformed their introductory logic course into a general education service course with a title such as "critical thinking" or "reasoning." In 1980, the trustees of California State universities and colleges approved a critical thinking course as a general education requirement, described below: Critical thinking instruction must be designed to achieve an understanding of the relationship of language to speech. logic, which should lead to the ability to analyze, criticize and defend ideas, reason inductively and deductively, and reach factual or judgment conclusions based on solid inferences drawn from unequivocal statements of knowledge or belief. The minimum competence expected upon successful completion of critical thinking instruction should be the ability to distinguish facts from judgment, belief from knowledge, and skills in elementary inductive and deductive processes, including understanding formal and informal fallacies. of language and thought. (Dumke 1980)

Since December 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions at the three annual divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association. In December 1987, the American Philosophical Association's Pre-College Philosophy Committee invited Peter Facione to conduct systematic research on the current state of critical thinking and the evaluation of critical thinking. Facione brought together a group of 46 other academic philosophers and psychologists to participate in a multi-round Delphi process, the product of which was titled Critical Thinking: An Expert Consensus Statement for Educational Instruction and Assessment Purposes (Facione 1990a). The statement listed the skills and dispositions that should be the goals of a lower-level undergraduate course in critical thinking.

Contemporary business and political leaders express their support for critical thinking as an educational goal. In his 2014 State of the Union Address (Obama 2014), US President Barack Obama listed critical thinking as one of the six skills for the new economy targeted by his Race to the Top program. . An article in the business magazine Forbes reported that the number one job skill, found in nine out of 10 of the most in-demand jobs, was critical thinking, defined as "using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of solutions. alternatives, conclusions or approaches to problems ". In response to such claims, the European Commission has funded "Critical Thinking in European Higher Education Curricula", a nine-country research project to develop guidelines for the quality of critical thinking instruction in European higher education institutions, on The researchers 'base' findings of the critical thinking skills and dispositions that employers expect from recent graduates (Domínguez 2018a; 2018b).

Conclusions: Sapiens and critical thinking

Similarities

Similarity 1: Both start from the same motivation: distrust of information and knowledge, ambition to get closer to the truth / understanding.

Similarity 2: Their position is at the other extreme of dogmas, as they seek to end them.

Similarity 3: Both proposals consider it essential to ask oneself about the person who knows through self-analysis.

Similarity 4: Both have a practical purpose, seeking to solve problems, contradictions and act better.

What is? “The ability that we all have to understand our world in interrelation with the world of others. There are different levels. " Two fundamental elements:

- The circumstances that configure us and we cannot choose.
- Need to educate to see beyond the context. Essential for thought to evolve. The ability to question things is anchored, it does not evolve.

How to associate philosophy with critical thinking?
Stoicism (debatable, there are better examples).
What things depend on me? My opinions, you have to take care of them; my aspirations (choose them from my circumstances and context); my limitations (know them).

What things do not depend on us? The opinion that others have towards us, the affections of others; and the achievements of others.

Differences

Difference 1: Sapiens' dissatisfaction stems from a reductionism of things, since they are only seen from a prism. For this reason, he proposes to connect different prisms of the object of study to better understand its complexity and consequently act better. Critical thinking is born from the more general trust towards beliefs and affirmations, mainly because it is situated at the time where reason replaces God. For this reason, it tries to give great weight to our reasoning, with the ultimate aim of achieving an independence of the individual with the beliefs of their context.

Difference 2: critical thinking generally tries to approximate the authenticity of what it is studying through careful analysis of the arguments. It is both deductive (logical) and inductive (observation) analysis. Sapiens tries to approach the authenticity of what it studies through the connection of knowledge and, for this, it carries out its five methods.

Difference 3: Although there are Sapiens methods that are present in critical thinking (for example, in comparing the object of study with other similar ones to distinguish the meanings well), Sapiens goes further. This is because, in addition to having an attitude and critical thinking, the Sapiens methodology allows us to place the object of study in relation to a whole (systems theory) thanks to generating categories that facilitate understanding. Critical thinking, on the other hand, is more exhaustive from a logical point of view with the analysis of arguments and premises, avoiding assuming expansive or fallacious arguments.

Difference 4: Sapiens orders the information and helps us to locate and understand the object of study through the cabinets, shelves and drawers, but does not give or produce the information, while critical thinking verifies the information and knowledge to ensure the validity of each one. of these.

From this synthesis of the similarities and differences, we can conclude by saying that Sapiens' methodology and critical thinking are complementary, since they occupy different cognitive aspects and face the same concern: to understand things well to act free from dogmas.

WHAT IS SAPIENS
SAPIENS METHODOLOGY
THE TEAM
THE ORIGINS
UNDERSTAND HOW TO UNDERSTAND IT
WHO IS IT AIMED AT?
THE SYSTEM TO UNDERSTAND
THE PRINCIPLES
THE METHODOLOGY
REFERENCES
Lexical, semantic and conceptual method
LEXICAL, SEMANTIC AND CONCEPTUAL METHOD
Classification method
CLASSIFICATION METHOD
Comparative method
COMPARATIVE METHOD
Systemic method
SYSTEMIC METHOD
Historical method
HISTORICAL METHOD
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN METHODS
SAPIENS METHODOLOGY
WHAT IS SAPIENS
THE TEAM
THE ORIGINS
UNDERSTAND HOW TO UNDERSTAND IT
WHO IS IT AIMED AT?
THE SYSTEM TO UNDERSTAND
THE PRINCIPLES
METHODS
Lexical, semantic and conceptual method
LEXICAL, SEMANTIC AND CONCEPTUAL METHOD
Classification method
CLASSIFICATION METHOD
Comparative method
COMPARATIVE METHOD
Systemic method
SYSTEMIC METHOD
Historical method
HISTORICAL METHOD
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN METHODS
REFERENCES