Intsingiselo yangoku: cinga ngokuchasene nento okanye umntu kwaye uyenze esidlangalaleni.

I-Etymology: Igama elithi ukugxeka lithatyathwe kwigama elithi criterion (ingqikelelo, i-mechanical), ingcambu efanayo yesiGrike kri(n)- (iphuma kwiProto-Indo-European *kr̥n-, ethi ngesiLatini ikwanika amagama afana ne-secretum, discernere) , kwinjongo yayo yokuqonda inyaniso ngokungqina kwangaphambili ubuxoki okanye impazamo (uvavanyo kunye nempazamo).

Ngokusuka kwiLatin criticus-a-um, ethi ngolwimi lwezamayeza yachaza imeko eyingozi okanye eqinisekileyo yomguli nethi kwiphilology ichaze ebudodeni lowo ungumgwebi wemisebenzi yomoya nakwi-neuter (critica) philology ebalulekileyo. Ligama lemali-mboleko elisuka kwisiGrike () elithetha ukukwazi ukugweba, isichazi esisuka kwisimamva sobudlelwane u-ikos.

Isenzi sikwanxulunyaniswa nengcambu ye-Indo-European *skribh ebonisa ukusika, ukwahlula kunye nokucalula.

NgokukaGoogle: Iseti yezimvo okanye izigwebo eziphendula uhlalutyo kwaye zinokuba zilungile okanye zibi.

Gxila ngokweRAE: Hlalutya into ngokweenkcukacha kwaye uyivavanye ngokweenqobo zesifundo ekuthethwa ngaso.

Okubalulekileyo ngokwe-RAE: Utyekele ekugwebeni izibakala kunye nokuziphatha ngokubanzi ngendlela engathandekiyo.

Ngokutsho kweRAE: Isigwebo esivakaliswayo, ngokubanzi esidlangalaleni, malunga nomboniso, umsebenzi wobugcisa, njl.

Ngokutsho kwesichazi-magama sesiFrentshi sikaLarousse: Examen détaillé visant à établir la vérité, l'authenticité de quelque chose (Inguqulelo: Uviwo oluneenkcukacha olunenjongo yokuseka inyaniso, ukunyaniseka kwento ethile).

Ngokutsho kweeLwimi zeOxford: Vavanya (ithiyori okanye uqheliselo) ngendlela eneenkcukacha kunye nocazululo. Uhlalutyo oluneenkcukacha kunye novavanyo lwento ethile, ngakumbi uncwadi, ifilosofi, okanye ithiyori yezopolitiko.

NgokukaGoogle: Ukukwazi kwabantu ukwenza iingcamango kunye nokubonakaliswa kokwenyani ezingqondweni zabo, ezihambelanayo.

Ngokusuka kwiinkcazelo “zengcinga” kunye “nokugxeka/ukugxeka”, sinokuthi ukucinga nzulu kukukwazi ukuqulunqa iingcamango nokumela ubunyani (ingcinga) ngokuhlalutya ngononophelo nokugweba oko ubani acinga ngako.(ukugxeka). Ngamanye amazwi, yindlela yokuzama ukudlulela ngaphaya kwenkcazelo ekhoyo ngoku yenyaniso size sifune ukusulungekisa ukuqonda kwethu ngayo ngothotho lweenkqubo zengqondo.” Noko ke, intsingiselo yegama elithi “ingcinga enzulu” ayipheleliselwanga kushwankathelo. "yengcinga" kunye "nokugxeka" kodwa endaweni yoko isetyenziselwe ukuvuselela ezinye iintsingiselo ezahlukeneyo, ezivelisa ubunzima bengqiqo.. Ke ngoko, siza kuveza ngezantsi ezona zifanelekileyo ukunika igama intsingiselo yethu.

Ngokutsho kukaEnnis (1992), yinkqubo yokucingisisa xa kukhangelwa ubunyani bendalo bezinto.Ngokutsho kuka-Elder & Paul (2003), bayitolika njengendlela yokucinga ngaso nasiphi na isihloko, umxholo okanye ingxaki ngeepatheni okanye imigangatho yengqondo, ngenjongo yokuphucula. umgangatho wokucinga. Kule nkcazo kukho amacandelo amathathu: uhlalutyo, uvavanyo kunye nobuchule.

Ngokutsho kwe https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IPgdBai7HxY
Isimo sengqondo sokuhlalutya kunye nokuvavanya iinkcazo (izimvo) ezisekelwe kwimibuzo yokwenyani (ukubuza izinto), isimo sengqondo (ukungahambelani), inkxalabo yokuqonda izinto, ukuzimela (ukukwazi ukuzinika imigangatho, ukuchonga nokuchaza ifilosofi yethu yobomi). Asikokugxeka okutshabalalisayo, luhlalutyo lwento ethethwayo okanye ebhaliweyo.

Yenziwa njani? Musa ukuthatha nantoni na, kodwa ngaphandle kokuwela ekuthandabuzeni.

Ngokutsho kukaGeoff Pynn (iYunivesithi yaseNorthern Illinois), ukucinga okunzulu luhlobo lokucinga apho iingxoxo ezithethelela oko sicinga ukuba zifundwe ngononophelo. Ukuqinisekisa ukuba sinezizathu ezilungileyo (kungekhona ngokwendlela yokuziphatha, kodwa mhlawumbi ziyinyani) zokukholelwa into ethile. Sinengqiqo kwaye sifuna ukuba nengqiqo ngokucinga okuphangaleleyo.

IBhunga leSizwe lokuGqwesa kwiNgcinga ebalulekileyo Uchaza ukucinga okunzulu njengenkqubo eqeqeshelwe ngokwasengqondweni yokuthelekelela ngenkuthalo nangobuchule, ukusebenzisa, ukuhlalutya, ukudibanisa, kunye/okanye ukuphonononga ulwazi oluqokelelweyo okanye oluveliswe ngokuqwalasela, amava, ukucamngca, ukucinga, okanye unxibelelwano, njengesikhokelo kwinkolelo kunye nesenzo”. Inkqubo yokucinga enzulu ithintela iingqondo zethu ekutsibeni ngokuthe ngqo kwizigqibo.

Inokushwankathelwa ngokuthi ukucinga nzulu kukucinga okunenyameko, okujoliswe kuko. NgokukaJosé Carlos Ruiz (isithandi sobulumko kunye nosaziwayo), amandla esinawo sonke ukuqonda ihlabathi lethu ngokunxulumana nehlabathi labanye.

Ngokutsho kwenkalo yemfundo: Kwiimeko zemfundo, inkcazo yokucinga okunzulu ibonakalisa inkqubo ephathekayo yokuphumeza injongo yemfundo. Le njongo yemfundo kukwamkelwa, ukwamkelwa kunye nokuphunyezwa ngabafundi bezo nqobo kunye nemigangatho. Oko kwamkelwa kunye nokuphunyezwa, kwakhona, kubandakanya ukufumana ulwazi, izakhono kunye nokuziphatha komntu ocingisisayo.

Luhlobo lokucinga oluvela ngokucinga nzulu. Zombini isenzo (ukucinga) kunye nesiphumo (ingcinga) zifuna isimo sengqondo esigxekayo okanye umoya obangela intandabuzo kuyo nayiphi na intetho okanye uluvo. Okanye, ngamanye amazwi, kufuneka kubekho amabhongo okuqonda nokusondela kwinyani yento nganye. Ukulandela oku, sinokuthetha malunga nomthamo njengoko kuya kuzama ukusombulula amathandabuzo okanye ukungathembani ngokusekelwe kuhlalutyo (uhlalutyo olubalulekileyo) olugweba kwaye luvavanye into eyinyani, inyaniso okanye isiphakamiso ngokuzimeleyo. Isiphumo sale nkqubo siya kuba yingcinga ehambelanayo, eyakhiwe kwizizathu eziqinisekisa ukufaneleka kwayo.

Ukucinga okubalulekileyo kusekelwe kwingqiqo yethu yendalo ukuze senze ngokufanelekileyo.

Ngaphaya koko, le ndlela yokucinga inokwamkelwa “njengentanda-bulumko yobomi”, enkosi apho ukuzimela nokuzimela kuya kuphunyezwa kuba siya kuba nako ukuzinika imigangatho, ukuchonga nokuchaza ubuni bethu kwaye siseke eyethu ifilosofi yobomi. ubomi. Siso kanye esi sikhundla esiye sazanywa ukuba siphakanyiswe ngemfundo kumaziko kunye neeyunivesithi, kunye nokucinga okuphangaleleyo kuzuze ukubaluleka kokubaluleka kulo mmandla.

Ukuba ukucinga okunzulu kucingelwa ngokubanzi ukugubungela nakuphi na ukucinga okucokisekileyo malunga naso nasiphi na isihloko kuyo nayiphi na injongo, ngoko ukusombulula ingxaki kunye nokwenza izigqibo kuya kuba ziintlobo zokucinga okunzulu, ukuba kwenziwa ngononophelo. Ngokwembali, “ukucinga okubalulekileyo” kunye “nokusombulula iingxaki” yayingamagama amabini ento enye. Ukuba ukucinga okunzulu kucatshangelwa ngokucokisekileyo njengokubandakanya kuphela ukuvavanywa kweemveliso zengqondo, ngoko ke akuyi kwaneliseka ngokusombulula ingxaki kunye nokwenza izigqibo, ezakhayo.

Iinjongo zokuqonda kunye nesicelo, njengoko amagama abo ebonisa, kubandakanya ukuqonda nokusebenzisa ulwazi. Izakhono zokucinga ezibalulekileyo kunye nezakhono zibonakala kwiindidi ezintathu eziphezulu zokuhlalutya, ukudibanisa, kunye nokuvavanya. Inguqulelo efinyeziweyo ye-taxonomy ye-Bloom inika le mizekelo ilandelayo yeenjongo kula manqanaba:

Iinjongo zohlalutyo: ukukwazi ukuqaphela iingqikelelo ezingachazwanga, ukukwazi ukujonga ukungqinelana kweengqikelelo kunye nolwazi olunikiweyo kunye nokucingela, ukukwazi ukuqaphela iindlela eziqhelekileyo ezisetyenziswa kwintengiso, ipropaganda kunye nezinye izinto ezicengayo. Ingqikelelo, ukukwazi ukuyila kunye nokuguqula iingcamango.

Iinjongo zovavanyo: ukukwazi ukubonisa ubuxoki obunengqiqo, uthelekiso lweethiyori eziphambili malunga neenkcubeko ezithile.

Uhlalutyo, udityaniso, kunye neenjongo zovavanyo lwetaxonomy kaBloom ziye zabizwa ngokuba “zizakhono zokucinga ezikumgangatho ophezulu” (Tankersley 2005: isahluko 5).

Nangona ulandelelwano lokuhlalutya-uvandlakanyo lovandlakanyo lulinganisa amanqanaba okuhlalutya okusengqiqweni kwenkqubo yokucinga kaDewey's (1933), iTaxonomy kaBloom ayikhange yamkelwe ngokubanzi njengomzekelo wenkqubo yokucinga nzulu. Ngelixa encoma ixabiso elikhuthazayo lobudlelwane bakhe kwiindidi ezintlanu zeenjongo zokucinga kudidi olulodwa lweenjongo zokukhumbula, u-Ennis (1981b) uphawula ukuba iindidi ziswele imigaqo esebenzayo kuzo zonke izihloko kunye nemimandla. Ngokomzekelo, uhlalutyo kwi-chemistry luhluke kakhulu kuhlalutyo kwiincwadi ukuba akukho ngqiqo ukufundisa uhlalutyo njengoluhlobo lokucinga oluqhelekileyo. Ngaphaya koko, i-hierarchy echaziweyo ibonakala ithandabuzeka kumanqanaba aphezulu e-Bloom's taxonomy. Umzekelo, ukukwazi ukukhomba ubuxoki obunengqiqo kubonakala kunzima kakhulu kunokwazi ukucwangcisa iinkcazo kunye neengcamango ngokubhala.

Inguqulelo ehlaziyiweyo yetaxonomi kaBloom (uAnderson et al. 2001) yahlula inkqubo yokuqonda ejoliswe kwinjongo yemfundo (efana nokukwazi ukukhumbula, ukuthelekisa, okanye ukuqinisekisa) kumxholo wolwazi wenjongo ("ulwazi"), enokuthi ibe yinyani. , ingqiqo, inkqubo okanye i-metacognitive. Isiphumo siluluhlu lweentlobo ezintandathu eziphambili zeenkqubo zengqiqo ezilawulwa ngootitshala: ukukhumbula, ukuqonda, ukusebenzisa, ukuhlalutya, ukuvandlakanya kunye nokudala. Ababhali bagcina umbono wenqanaba lobunzima obukhulayo, kodwa baqonde ukugqithelana, umzekelo, phakathi kokuqonda kunye nokusetyenziswa. Kwaye bagcina ingcamango yokuba ukucinga okunzulu kunye nokusombulula iingxaki kuhamba ngezona nkqubo zinzima kakhulu. Amagama athi 'ingcinga ebalulekileyo' kunye 'nokusombulula iingxaki', babhala:

Kwi-taxonomy ehlaziyiweyo, kuphela amacandelwana ambalwa, afana ne-inferring, anezinto ezifanayo ngokwaneleyo ukuba zithathwe njengesakhono sokucinga esicacileyo esinokufundiswa kwaye sihlolwe njengesakhono ngokubanzi.

Ke ngoko, oko kubizwa ngokuba "yizakhono zokucinga ezikumgangatho ophezulu" kumanqanaba aphezulu okuhlalutya, ukuhlanganiswa, kunye novavanyo lwetaxonomy zizakhono zokucinga ezibaluleke kakhulu, nangona zingezi nemilinganiselo ngokubanzi yovavanyo lwabo.

El yokucinga, zihamba ngokucinga nzulu. Ukucinga ngengcaciso yesenzeko okanye isiganeko, njengakwi-Ferryboat, kufuna intelekelelo yokuyila ukwakha iingqikelelo ezicacileyo ezicacileyo. Ngokunjalo, ukucinga ngombuzo wepolisi, njengakuMviwa, kufuna ubuchule bokuza nezinto onokukhetha kuzo. Ngokuchasene noko, ubuchule bokuyila kuwo nawuphi na ummandla kufuneka bulungelelaniswe ngovandlakanyo olubalulekileyo loyilo lomzobo okanye inoveli okanye ithiyori yemathematika.

- Umahluko phakathi kokucinga nzulu kunye nomoya
Umoya wokugxeka ubhekisa kwisimo sengqondo esithandabuzayo kunye nesikrokrela ubunyani beengxelo, izimvo okanye ubunyani uqobo. Ngenxa yesi sizathu, uMdala noPawulos bawugqala umoya wokugxeka sesinye sezimo zengqondo ezisixhenxe zokucinga nzulu.

- Umahluko phakathi kokucinga nzulu kunye nethiyori ebukhali. Icatshulwe kwisemina kwiYunivesithi yaseColumbia apho ndiye ndakwazi ukuthatha inxaxheba. UNjingalwazi Bernard E. Harcourt.
Ithiyori egxekayo ayifani nokucinga ngokunzulu. Ithiyori egxekayo isekelwe kumanqaku amathandathu: ukuguquka komgxeki; ukubaluleka okungundoqo kwezimvo/iingcinga zengqondo njengoko kuyimfuneko ukulamla inkcaso; indlela yokugxeka ngokukhawuleza; indlela yeengcamango ezibalulekileyo; ubudlelwane obusondeleyo phakathi kwethiyori kunye nokusebenza (ukutshintsha ihlabathi); kwaye utshintshe umhlaba kwimbono yokukhululwa. Njengoko sibona, ithiyori egxekayo inecandelo lezopolitiko elingaphezulu, elidityaniswe nokuguqulwa kwenkqubo kuba isondliwa kakhulu kukugxeka kukaMarx. Ukucinga okunzulu, kwelinye icala, kunokusetyenziswa ekubuzeni izinto ezibambekayo okanye ezilula, njengesivakalisi.

-Umahluko phakathi kokucinga okuphangaleleyo kunye nentanda-bulumko ebalulekileyo: Bhala kwaye ugqibezele ngeKant. Icatshulwe kwisemina kwiYunivesithi yaseColumbia apho ndiye ndakwazi ukuthatha inxaxheba. UNjingalwazi Bernard E. Harcourt.

Xa sithetha ngefilosofi ebalulekileyo, ixesha elininzi sibhekisela kwiKant kunye nesithethe saseKantian. Ifilosofi ebalulekileyo kaKant yayineendlela ezimbini, ukongeza kwithiyori egxekayo. Ukujongana ngezikhondo zamehlo ngokufunda oku kuvelise iimbono ezahlukeneyo zokuba yintoni na ukugxekwa. E-Kant, kwakukho indlela yokudibanisa ingcamango yokugxeka kwi-Latin ingcamango ye-cri (umahluko, ukwahlula phakathi kwenyaniso kunye nobuxoki, inkohliso). Ukudala lo mahluko ngumsebenzi ongqiyama kwicala lokuzama ukufumana inyaniso. Umsebenzi wesibini uxhomekeke ekukwazini oko kuthathwa njengenyani kwaye kwangaxeshanye ezi zakhiwo zaseKantian zeemeko zokwazi ukuphambukisa umbono wokuba into ethile inokwaziwa kuphela ngemeko yembali enokwenzeka, ke into ekufuneka siyifundile Umlibo wokuzalwa, iimeko kunye namathuba okucinga njengoko sisenza namhlanje.

Ukusuka kula manqaku sinokuqonda ukuba ingcamango kaDewey isondele kakhulu kule yangoku evela kwingcinga kaKant ngubani, phantsi kwesiqubulo esithi sapere aude (ubuganga bokwazi), ufuna ukwahlula phakathi kokwenyani kunye nobuxoki ngokusekelwe kwisizathu.

Nangona kunjalo, asinakutsho ukuba ziyafana, kuba ukucinga okunzulu kuyandisa le ngcamango ye-Kantian kunye nezinye izinto ezisebenzayo, ezizizo kunye nezokudala.

Ukuba undoqo wokucinga okunzulu, njengoko sibonile kwindlela ye-semantic, inononophelo, ukucinga okujoliswe kuko, iimbono zayo zinokwahluka ngokobubanzi obucingelwayo, injongo yayo ecingelwayo, kunye nekhrayitheriya kunye nomda wokuqaphela. icandelo lokucinga umntu ajolise kulo.

Ngokobubanzi bayo:
-Kulinganiselwe kwisiseko soqwalaselo kunye nemifuniselo (Dewey)
- Ufezekisa ixabiso lemveliso yengcinga.

Ngokwenjongo yakho:
- Ukusekwa kovavanyo
- Bavumela izenzo kunye neenkolelo njengesiphumo senkqubo yokucinga okunzulu.

Ngokwemilinganiselo kufuneka ulumke (ezi nkcukacha zahlukeneyo zemigangatho yokucinga nzulu akunyanzelekanga ukuba zingahambelani):
- "ukuqeqeshwa ngokwengqondo" (uScriven noPawulos 1987)
- "ingqiqo" (Ennis 1991). U-Stanovich no-Stanovich (2010) bacebisa ukusekela ingcamango yokucinga okunzulu kwingqiqo yengqiqo, abayiqonda njengendibaniselwano ye-epistemic rationality (ukulungelelanisa iinkolelo zehlabathi) kunye nengqiqo yezixhobo (ukuphucula ukuzalisekiswa kweenjongo); Umntu ocinga ngokugxekayo, ngokombono wakhe, ngumntu "onomdla wokugqithisa iimpendulo ezingaphantsi kweengqondo ezizimeleyo."
- "ubuchule" (Lipman 1987) - "ukuqwalaselwa kwayo nayiphi na inkolelo okanye uhlobo lolwazi ekucingelwa ukuba lusekelwe kwiziseko eziluxhasayo kunye nezigqibo ezongezelelweyo olutyekele kuzo" (Dewey 1910, 1933);

Ngokwecandelo lokucinga:
-Ukunqunyanyiswa kwesigwebo ngexesha lokucinga (uDewey noMcpeck)
- Uphando ngelixa ityala limisiwe (Bailin kunye neBattersby 2009)
- Isigwebo esinesiphumo (Facione 1990a)
- Impendulo yemvakalelo elandelayo kwesi sigwebo (Siegel 1988).

Nokuba ibandakanya icandelo lokuziphatha
- UDewey, njengabaninzi abacingayo, ukwahlula ukucinga okunzulu kuphuhliso lokuthelekisa intlalo phakathi kwabantwana besikolo.
- I-Ennis yongeza kwingcinga enzulu inkcazo yokuba kubalulekile ukukwazi ukukhathalela isidima kunye nexabiso lomntu ngamnye.

ver https://medicoplus.com/psicologia/tipos-pensamiento

Ukucinga okubalulekileyo yenye ye-24 yeentlobo eziphambili zokucinga kunye nokusebenzisana nezinye iintlobo zokucinga, ezinje:
- Ukucinga ngengqiqo
- Ukucinga ngemibuzo
- Ukucinga ngophando
- Ukucinga okwahlukileyo
- Ukucinga ngengqiqo
- Ukucinga ngokwenkqubo
- Ukucinga okucingisisiweyo
- Ukucinga okuthobayo

Ukucinga okubalulekileyo kuthatha indawo ebalulekileyo ngaphakathi kwemisinga ye-epistemological, ibe yenye yezikhundla ezihlanu malunga nokuzithemba ekukwazini.
‍
A) I-Dogmatism
B) Ukuthandabuza
C) I-subjectivism kunye ne-relativism
D) Pragmatism
E) Ukugxeka okanye ukucinga nzulu

Esi sisikhundla esichasene neenkolelo njengoko ibuza imithombo yolwazi ngokungathembani ukuze ikwazi ukuqinisekisa ngokuqinisekileyo ukuba iyayiqonda into eyaziyo kwaye olu lwazi lunokuthenjwa.

Ukucinga okubalulekileyo kunxulumene ngokusondeleyo intanda-bulumko, yinxalenye yesizathu sokuba. Ifilosofi asiyonto yimbi ngaphandle kokukhangela ulwazi ngokubuza imibuzo esisiseko esinceda ukuba sizibeke kwaye sisondele kulo. Zinokubonwa phantsi kwale nkcazo zifana, kunye nomahluko wokuba ifilosofi iqulunqa kwaye icwangcise ukucinga okubalulekileyo kuqeqesho lwezemfundo.

Ngaphezu koko, sinokubona ukucinga okubalulekileyo kwezinye izifundo kunye nezinye izicelo zomsebenzi, nangona impembelelo encinci kwifilosofi, njengentatheli, okanye ijaji ekufuneka ivavanye kwaye igcine ulwazi oluyinyani ukuseka isigwebo esichanekileyo.

UJohn Dewey yazisa igama elithi "ukucinga okubalulekileyo" njengegama lenjongo yemfundo, ethi zichongwe ngesimo sengqondo senzululwazi.

Wakuchaza “njengokuqwalasela ngokukhutheleyo, ngokuzingisileyo nangokunyamekileyo nayiphi na inkolelo okanye uhlobo lolwazi ekucingelwa ukuba lusekelwe kwiziseko eziluxhasayo kunye nezigqibo ezilandelayo olutyekele kuzo.”

Ngaloo ndlela, uDewey wawuchaza njengomkhwa wokuqwalaselwa okunjalo njengesimo sengqondo senzululwazi. Iingcaphulo zakhe ezinde zikaFrancis Bacon, uJohn Locke, noJohn Stuart Mill zibonisa ukuba wayengenguye umntu wokuqala ukucebisa ukuphuhliswa kwesimo sengqondo senzululwazi njengosukelo lwemfundo.

Iingcamango zikaDewey zasetyenziswa zezinye zezikolo ezazinenxaxheba kwiSifundo Seminyaka Esibhozo ngeminyaka yee-1930 esasixhaswa nguMbutho Wemfundo Eqhubekayo eUnited States. Kolu phononongo, iiyunivesithi ezingama-300 zivumile ukuba zithathele ingqalelo abafundi abaphumeleleyo kwizikolo eziphakamileyo ezingama-30 ezikhethiweyo okanye iinkqubo zezikolo kwilizwe liphela ezivavanya umxholo kunye neendlela zokufundisa, nokuba abafundi abaphumeleleyo abakhange bayigqibe ikharityhulam emiselweyo yesikolo esiphakamileyo ngelo xesha. Enye injongo yophononongo yayikukufumanisa ngokuphonononga kunye nokulinga ukuba izikolo zasesekondari eUnited States zinokubanceda njani abantu abatsha ngokufanelekileyo (Aikin 1942). Ngokukodwa, amagosa esikolo akholelwa ukuba abantu abatsha kwidemokhrasi kufuneka bahlakulele umkhwa wokucinga okubonakalayo kunye nezakhono zokusombulula iingxaki (Aikin 1942: 81). Ngoko ke, umsebenzi wabafundi eklasini ngokufuthi wawuba nengxaki ekufuneka isonjululwe kunesifundo ekufuneka sifundwe. Ingakumbi kwizibalo nenzululwazi, izikolo ziye zazabalazela ukunika abafundi amava okucinga okucacileyo, okusengqiqweni njengoko babecombulula iingxaki.

Ukucinga okunzulu okanye okucingisisiweyo kuvela kwimbono yengxaki. Ingumgangatho wokucinga osebenza kumzamo wokusombulula ingxaki kwaye ufikelele kwisigqibo esisisigxina esixhaswa yiyo yonke idatha ekhoyo. Ngokwenene Yinkqubo yokusonjululwa kweengxaki efuna ukusetyenziswa kwengqiqo yokuyila, ukunyaniseka kwengqondo, kunye nengqiqo elungileyo. Isisiseko sendlela yophando lwezenzululwazi. Impumelelo yedemokhrasi ixhomekeke ikakhulu ekuzimiseleni nasekukwazini kwabemi ukucinga nzulu nangokucingisisa nzulu ngeengxaki ekufuneka bajongane nazo, kwaye ukuphuculwa komgangatho wokucinga yenye yeenjongo eziphambili zemfundo. (IKomishoni yoBudlelwane phakathi kweSikolo kunye neKholeji yoMbutho weMfundo ePhambili, ngo-1943: 745–746)

Ngowe-1933, uDewey wapapasha uhlelo lwakhe olubhalwe ngokutsha Indlela Esicinga Ngayo, ngomxholo ongezantsi othi “Ukuqinisekiswa kwakhona kobudlelwane bokucinga okucingisisiweyo kunye nenkqubo yemfundo.” Nangona ukulungiswa kwakhona kugcina isakhiwo esisisiseko kunye nomxholo wencwadi yokuqala, uDewey wenza utshintsho oluninzi.

Wabhala kwakhona kwaye wenza lula uhlalutyo lwakhe olunengqiqo lwenkqubo yokucamngca, wenza ukuba iingcamango zakhe zicace kwaye zichazwe ngakumbi, endaweni yamagama 'ukuqaliswa' kunye 'nokunciphisa' kunye namabinzana 'ukulawulwa kwedatha kunye nobungqina' kunye 'nokulawula ukucinga kunye neengcamango', wongezwa. imifanekiso engakumbi, yahlengahlengisa izahluko yaza yahlaziywa iinxalenye zokufundisa ukuze zibonise utshintsho olwenziwe ezikolweni ukususela ngowe-1910.

UGlaser (1941) unika ingxelo kwithisisi yakhe yobugqirha indlela kunye neziphumo zovavanyo ekuphuhlisweni kokucinga okunzulu olwenziwa ekwindla ka-1938. Uchaza ukucinga okunzulu njengoko uDewey echaza ukucinga okucingayo:

Ukucinga okunzulu kufuna umgudu ozingisileyo wokuhlolisisa nayiphi na inkolelo okanye uhlobo lolwazi ekucingelwa ukuba lusekelwe kubungqina obuyixhasayo nezigqibo ezibhekele phaya etyekele kuzo. (Glaser 1941: 6; cf. Dewey 1910: 6; Dewey 1933: 9).

Umba wokucinga okunzulu obonakala uchaphazeleka kakhulu kuphuculo jikelele sisimo sengqondo sokuvuma ukucamngca ngeengxaki kunye nemiba ewela phantsi komda wamava omntu. Isimo sengqondo sokufuna ubungqina beenkolelo sixhomekeke ngakumbi ekudluliseleni ngokubanzi. Ukukhula kobuchule bokusebenzisa iindlela zokubuza kunye nokuqiqa okunengqiqo, nangona kunjalo, kubonakala kunxulumene ngokuthe ngqo, kwaye ngokwenene kuthintelwe, ukufunyanwa kolwazi olufanelekileyo kunye neenyani ezinxulumene nengxaki okanye isihloko umntu aya kuso. (I-Glaser 1941: 175)

Iziphumo ezivela kuvavanyo oluphindaphindiweyo kunye nokuziphatha okubonakalayo kubonise ukuba abafundi kwiqela lokungenelela bagcina ukukhula kwabo kubuchule bokucinga obunzulu ubuncinane kwiinyanga ezintandathu emva komyalelo okhethekileyo.

Ngo-1948, iqela labavavanyi beyunivesithi yase-US bagqiba ekubeni baphuhlise i-taxonomies yeenjongo zemfundo kunye nesigama esiqhelekileyo abanokusebenzisa ukunxibelelana omnye nomnye malunga nezinto zovavanyo. Eyokuqala kwezi taxonomi, kwi-domain cognitive, yavela kwi-1956 (Bloom et al. 1956) kwaye iquka iinjongo zokucinga ezibalulekileyo. Yaziwa ngokuba yiBloom's taxonomy. I-taxonomy yesibini, ye-domain echaphazelekayo (Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia 1964), kunye ne-taxonomy yesithathu, ye-psychomotor domain (Simpson 1966-67), yavela kamva. Uluhlu ngalunye lwerhafu lunoluhlu lwemigangatho, kwaye ukuphunyezwa kwenjongo yemfundo ephakamileyo kucingelwa ukuba kufuna ukufezekiswa kweenjongo zemfundo ephantsi ezihambelanayo.

I-taxonomy kaBloom ineendidi ezintandathu eziphambili. Ukusuka ezantsi ukuya kwephezulu, zilulwazi, ukuqonda, ukusetyenziswa, uhlalutyo, ukudibanisa kunye novavanyo. Kwinqanaba ngalinye, kukho amacandelwana, nawo acwangciswe ngokoluhlu ukusuka kweyaphambi kwemfundo ukuya kweyasemva kwezemfundo. Udidi oluphantsi, nangona lubizwa ngokuba "ulwazi," lulinganiselwe kwiinjongo zokukhumbula ulwazi kunye nokukwazi ukukhumbula okanye ukuqaphela, ngaphandle kwenguqu eninzi ngaphaya kokuyilungiselela (Bloom et al. 1956: 28-29). Iindidi ezintlanu eziphezulu zibizwa ngokuba "zizakhono zengqondo kunye nezakhono" (Bloom et al. 1956: 204). Eli gama lelinye igama lezakhono zokucinga ezinzulu kunye nobuchule:

Nangona ulwazi okanye ulwazi lubonwa njengesiphumo esibalulekileyo semfundo, bambalwa kakhulu ootitshala abanokwaneliseka kukuthatha oku njengesona siphumo siphambili okanye ekuphela kwesiphumo sokufundisa. Into efunekayo bubungqina bokuba abafundi banokwenza okuthile ngolwazi lwabo, oko kukuthi, banokusebenzisa ulwazi kwiimeko ezintsha kunye neengxaki. Abafundi bakwalindeleke ukuba bafumane ubuchule obuqhelekileyo bokusondela kwiingxaki ezintsha kunye nezixhobo ezintsha. Ngaloo ndlela, kulindelekile ukuba xa umfundi ehlangabezana nengxaki okanye imeko entsha, akhethe indlela efanelekileyo yokuyihlasela aze anikele inkcazelo eyimfuneko, zombini izibakala nemigaqo. Oku kuye kubhalwe “ingcinga ebalulekileyo” ngabanye, “iingcinga ezicingisisiweyo” nguDewey nabanye, kunye “nokusombulula iingxaki” ngabanye.

Iinjongo zokuqonda kunye nesicelo, njengoko amagama abo ebonisa, kubandakanya ukuqonda nokusebenzisa ulwazi. Izakhono zokucinga ezibalulekileyo kunye nezakhono zibonakala kwiindidi ezintathu eziphezulu zokuhlalutya, ukudibanisa, kunye nokuvavanya. Inguqulelo efinyeziweyo yetaxonomy kaBloom (Bloom et al. 1956: 201-207) inika le mizekelo ilandelayo yeenjongo kula manqanaba:

Iinjongo zohlalutyo: ukukwazi ukuqaphela iingqikelelo ezingachazwanga, ukukwazi ukujonga ukungqinelana kweengqikelelo kunye nolwazi olunikiweyo kunye nokucingela, ukukwazi ukuqaphela iindlela eziqhelekileyo ezisetyenziswa kwintengiso, ipropaganda kunye nezinye izinto ezicengayo. Ingqikelelo, ukukwazi ukuyila kunye nokuguqula iingcamango.

Iinjongo zovavanyo: ukukwazi ukubonisa ubuxoki obunengqiqo, uthelekiso lweethiyori eziphambili malunga neenkcubeko ezithile.

Uhlalutyo, udityaniso, kunye neenjongo zovavanyo lwetaxonomy kaBloom ziye zabizwa ngokuba “zizakhono zokucinga ezikumgangatho ophezulu” (Tankersley 2005: isahluko 5). Nangona ulandelelwano lokuhlalutya-i-synthesis-evaluation lulinganisa amanqanaba okuhlalutya okusengqiqweni kwenkqubo yokucinga yokucinga kaDewey's (1933), ayikhange yamkelwe ngokubanzi njengomzekelo wenkqubo yokucinga nzulu. Ngelixa encoma ixabiso elikhuthazayo lobudlelwane bakhe kwiindidi ezintlanu zeenjongo zokucinga kudidi olulodwa lweenjongo zokukhumbula, u-Ennis (1981b) uphawula ukuba iindidi ziswele imigaqo esebenzayo kuzo zonke izihloko kunye nemimandla.. Ngokomzekelo, uhlalutyo kwi-chemistry luhluke kakhulu kuhlalutyo kwiincwadi ukuba akukho ngqiqo ukufundisa uhlalutyo njengoluhlobo lokucinga oluqhelekileyo. Ukuya phambili, i-hierarchy echaziweyo ibonakala ithandabuzeka kumanqanaba aphezulu e-Bloom's taxonomy. Umzekelo, ukukwazi ukukhomba ubuxoki obunengqiqo kubonakala kunzima kakhulu kunokwazi ukucwangcisa iinkcazo kunye neengcamango ngokubhala.

Inguqulelo ehlaziyiweyo yetaxonomy kaBloom (U-Anderson et al. 2001) wahlula inkqubo yokuqonda ejoliswe kwinjongo yemfundo (efana nokukwazi ukukhumbula, ukuthelekisa, okanye ukuqinisekisa) kumxholo wolwazi wenjongo ("ulwazi"), enokuba yinyani, ingqiqo, inkqubo. , okanye i-metacognitive. Isiphumo yinto ebizwa ngokuba yi "Taxonomy Table" enemigca emine yeentlobo zomxholo wolwazi kunye neekholamu ezintandathu kwiintlobo ezintandathu zeenkqubo zokuqonda. Ababhali babiza iintlobo zeenkqubo zengqondo ngezenzi, ukubonisa isimo sabo njengemisebenzi yengqondo. Balithiya ngokutsha udidi 'lokuqonda' ukuze 'uqonde' kunye nodidi 'lwengqungquthela' ukuze 'luyike', kwaye lutshintshe ulungelelwaniso lokudityaniswa kunye novavanyo.. Isiphumo siluluhlu lweentlobo ezintandathu eziphambili zeenkqubo zengqiqo ezilawulwa ngootitshala: ukukhumbula, ukuqonda, ukusebenzisa, ukuhlalutya, ukuvandlakanya kunye nokudala. Ababhali bagcina umbono wenqanaba lobunzima obukhulayo, kodwa baqonde ukugqithelana, umzekelo, phakathi kokuqonda kunye nokusetyenziswa. Kwaye bagcina ingcamango yokuba ukucinga okunzulu kunye nokusombulula iingxaki kuhamba ngezona nkqubo zinzima kakhulu. Amagama athi 'ingcinga ebalulekileyo' kunye 'nokusombulula iingxaki', babhala:

Zisetyenziswa kakhulu kwaye zithande ukuba 'ziikona' zogxininiso lwekharityhulam. Zombini ngokubanzi ziquka imisebenzi eyahlukeneyo enokuthi ihlelwe ngokweeseli ezihlukeneyo zeTaxonomy Table. Oko kukuthi, kuyo nayiphi na imeko, iinjongo ezibandakanya ukusonjululwa kwengxaki kunye nokucinga okuphangaleleyo kusenokwenzeka ukuba zifune iinkqubo zokuqonda kwiindidi ezininzi kubungakanani benkqubo. Umzekelo, ukucinga ngokunzulu ngesihloko mhlawumbi kubandakanya ulwazi oluthile lokucazulula isihloko. Emva koko umntu unokuvavanya iimbono ezahlukeneyo ngokwemigaqo kwaye mhlawumbi enze inoveli kodwa imbono ekhuselayo kwesi sihloko. (uAnderson et al. 2001: 269-270; akekeliswe kwintsusa)

Kwi-taxonomy ehlaziyiweyo, kuphela amacandelwana ambalwa, afana ne-inferring, anezinto ezifanayo ngokwaneleyo ukuba zithathwe njengesakhono sokucinga esicacileyo esinokufundiswa kwaye sihlolwe njengesakhono ngokubanzi.

Igalelo elibalulekileyo kwizifundo zefilosofi kwingqikelelo yokucinga okunzulu yayilinqaku le-1962 kwi-Harvard Educational Review nguRobert H. Ennis, enesihloko esithi "Umbono wokuCinga okuPhambili: Isiseko esiCetywayo soPhando ekuFundeni kunye noVavanyo." ukucinga okunzulu. isakhono” (Ennis 1962). U-Ennis wathatha njengesiqalo sakhe ingcamango yokucinga okuphangaleleyo eyaboniswa nguB. Othanel Smith:

Siza kuqwalasela ukucinga ngokwemisebenzi ebandakanyekayo ekuphononongeni iingxelo esinokuthi, okanye abanye, bakholelwe kuzo. Ngokomzekelo, esinye isithethi sivakalisa ukuba “Inkululeko ithetha ukuba izigqibo kwilinge lemveliso laseMerika azenziwa kwingqondo yabasemagunyeni kodwa kwimarike ekhululekileyo.” Ngoku, ukuba sizimisele ukufumanisa ukuba le ngxelo ithetha ukuthini kwaye sigqibe ukuba siyamkele okanye siyayikhaba na, besiya kubandakanyeka ekucingeni ukuba, ngenxa yokungabikho kwegama elingcono, siya kuthi kukucinga okunzulu. Ukuba umntu ufuna ukuthetha ukuba oku luhlobo nje lokusombulula ingxaki apho injongo ikukugqiba ukuba oko kuthethwayo kunokuthenjwa okanye akunjalo, asiyi kuphikisa. Kodwa ngeenjongo zethu sikhetha ukuyibiza ngokucinga okunzulu. (Smith 1953: 130)

Esongeza icandelo eliqhelekileyo kulo mbono, u-Ennis uchaze ukucinga okunzulu "njengovavanyo oluchanekileyo lweengxelo." (Ennis 1962: 83). Ngokusekwe kule nkcazo, wahlula "imiba" ye-12 yokucinga ngokuphangaleleyo ehambelana neentlobo okanye imiba yeengxelo, ezinjengokugweba ukuba ingxelo yoqwalaselo inokuthenjwa kwaye ibambe intsingiselo yengxelo. Waphawula ukuba ayizange ibandakanye ukugweba iingxelo zexabiso. Etyhutyha iinkalo ezili-12, wahlulahlula imilinganiselo emithathu yokucinga nzulu: ingqiqo (gweba unxulumano phakathi kweentsingiselo zamagama kunye neengxelo), inqobo (ulwazi lweendlela zokugweba iingxelo) kunye nepragmatic (ushicilelo lwenjongo yangasemva). Kwinkalo nganye, u-Ennis wachaza imilinganiselo esebenzayo, kuquka nemilinganiselo.

Ngeminyaka yee-1980 kunye nee-1983 kwakukho ingqalelo eyandisiweyo ekuphuhliseni izakhono zokucinga. INkomfa yaMazwe ngaMazwe yaminyaka le yokuCinga okuCringileyo noHlaziyo lweMfundo iye yatsala amashumi amawaka ootitshala kuwo onke amanqanaba ukususela ekusekweni kwayo ngo-XNUMX. Ngo-XNUMX, iBhodi yeeMviwo zokuNgena kwiKholeji yabhengeza ukuqiqa njengenye yezakhono ezingundoqo ezintandathu ezifunwa ngabafundi beekholeji. Amasebe emfundo eUnited States nasehlabathini lonke aqalisa ukuquka iinjongo zokucinga kwimigaqo yezifundo zesikolo.

Ukucinga okubalulekileyo yinkqubo yokucinga malunga neengcamango okanye iimeko zokuziqonda ngokupheleleyo, ukuchonga iziphumo zabo, ukwenza isigwebo, kunye / okanye ukukhokela izigqibo. Ukucinga okubalulekileyo kubandakanya izakhono ezinjengokubuza, ukuqikelela, ukuhlalutya, ukudibanisa, ukuphonononga izimvo, ukuchonga amaxabiso kunye neengxaki, ukufumanisa ucalucalulo, kunye nokwahlula phakathi kwezinye izinto. Abafundi abafundiswa ezi zakhono baba ziingcibi ezibukhali ezinokuhamba ngaphaya kwezigqibo ezingeyomfuneko ukuya ekuqondeni nzulu iingxaki abazivavanyayo. Basenokubandakanyeka kwinkqubo yophando apho baphonononga imiba entsonkothileyo neneenkalo ezininzi, kunye nemibuzo ekusenokwenzeka ukuba akukho zimpendulo zicacileyo zayo.

ISweden yenza izikolo zithwale uxanduva lokuqinisekisa ukuba wonke umfundi ogqiba isikolo esisisinyanzelo “uyakwazi ukusebenzisa ukucinga nzulu kwaye ngokuzimeleyo aqulunqe iimbono ezisekelwe kulwazi nakwiingcinga zokuziphatha.” Kwinqanaba leyunivesiti, i-wave entsha yeencwadi ezifundisayo ezifundisayo, eyaqalwa nguKahane (1971), yasebenzisa izixhobo zokuqiqa kwiingxaki zangoku zentlalo nezopolitiko. Ekuvukeni kwayo, iikholeji zaseMntla Melika kunye neeyunivesithi zaguqula ikhosi yazo ye-logic yentshayelelo kwikhosi yenkonzo yemfundo ngokubanzi enesihloko esithi "ukucinga okubalulekileyo" okanye "ukuqiqa." Ngo-1980, abaphathiswa beekholeji zikarhulumente kunye neeyunivesithi zaseCalifornia bavuma ikhosi yokucinga enzulu njengemfuno yemfundo ngokubanzi, echazwe ngezantsi: ukukwazi ukuhlalutya, ukugxeka nokukhusela iimbono, ukuqiqa ngendlela echubekileyo nangendlela ethobayo, nokufikelela kwizigqibo eziyinyani okanye ezigwebayo ezisekelwe kwingqikelelo evakalayo ethatyathwe kwiingxelo ezicacileyo zolwazi okanye zenkolelo. Obona buchule buncinane obulindelekileyo ekugqityweni ngempumelelo komyalelo wokucinga ngengqiqo kufuneka ibe kukukwazi ukwahlula inyaniso kwisigwebo, inkolelo kulwazi, kunye nezakhono kwiinkqubo zokuqala zokufundisa nokuxhuzula, kubandakanywa nokuqonda ubuxoki obusesikweni nobungekho sikweni bolwimi nengcinga. (Dumke 1980)

Ukusukela ngoDisemba ka-1983, uMbutho weNgcaciso engacwangciswanga kunye neNgcinga ePhambili uye waxhasa iiseshoni kwiindibano ezintathu zonyaka zamacandelo oMbutho wePhilosophical yaseMelika. NgoDisemba 1987, iKomiti ye-Pre-College Philosophy ye-American Philosophical Association yamema uPeter Facione ukuba enze uphando olucwangcisiweyo malunga nemeko yangoku yokucinga okunzulu kunye novavanyo lokucinga okunzulu. U-Facione wahlanganisa iqela lezinye iifilosofi zezemfundo ze-46 kunye neengqondo zengqondo ukuba zithathe inxaxheba kwinkqubo ye-Delphi ejikelezayo, imveliso eyayibizwa ngokuba yiCritical Thinking: INkcazelo yeNgqungquthela yeNgcali yeeNjongo zoVavanyo lweMfundo kunye nomyalelo (Facione 1990a). Le ngxelo idwelise izakhono kunye neendlela zokuziphatha ekufuneka zibe ziinjongo zekhosi yenqanaba elisezantsi lokucinga ngokunzulu.

Iinkokeli zezopolitiko kunye nezoshishino zangoku zivakalisa inkxaso yokucinga okubalulekileyo njengenjongo yemfundo. Kwintetho yakhe ye-2014 State of the Union (Obama 2014), uMongameli wase-US uBarack Obama udwelise ukucinga okubalulekileyo njengenye yezakhono ezintandathu kuqoqosho olutsha olujoliswe yiRace to Top program. Inqaku elikwiphephancwadi leshishini leForbes labika ukuba ikhono elinye lomsebenzi, elifunyenwe kwisithoba kwi-10 yemisebenzi efunwa kakhulu, yayiyingcinga enzulu, echazwa "njengokusebenzisa ingqiqo kunye nokuqiqa ukuchonga amandla kunye nobuthathaka bezisombululo." ezinye iindlela, izigqibo okanye iindlela zokujongana neengxaki". Ukuphendula kumabango anjalo, iKomishoni yaseYurophu iye yaxhasa ngemali "Ukucinga okuCritical kwikharityhulam yemfundo ephakamileyo yaseYurophu", iprojekthi yophando lwamazwe alithoba ukuphuhlisa izikhokelo zomgangatho wokufundisa ukucinga okubalulekileyo kumaziko emfundo ephakamileyo aseYurophu, kwiziphumo zophando zisekela ukucinga okubalulekileyo. izakhono kunye ne-dispositions abaqeshi abalindele ngayo kubafundi abasandul 'ukuphumelela (Domínguez 2018a; 2018b).

Ukufana 1: Zombini ziqala kwintshukumisa efanayo: ukungathembi ulwazi kunye nolwazi, amabhongo okusondela kwinyani / ukuqonda.

Ukufana 2: Isikhundla sawo sikwenye imfundiso egabadeleyo, njengoko efuna ukuziphelisa.

Ukufana 3: Zombini ezi zindululo zikubona kubalulekile ukuzibuza ngomntu ozaziyo ngokuzihlalutya.

Ukufana 4: Zombini zinenjongo esebenzayo, zifuna ukusombulula iingxaki, ukuchasana nokwenza ngcono.

Ingaba yin? “Amandla esinawo sonke okuqonda umhlaba wethu ngokunxibelelana nehlabathi labanye. "Kukho amanqanaba ahlukeneyo." Izinto ezimbini ezibalulekileyo:
‍
- Iimeko ezisibumbayo kwaye asikwazi ukukhetha.
- Kufuneka ufundise ukubona ngaphaya komxholo. Ibalulekile kwingcinga ukuze ivele. Ukukwazi ukubuza izinto kuyaqina, akuguquki.

Indlela yokudibanisa ifilosofi kunye nokucinga okuphangaleleyo?
Stoicism (kuyaphikiswa, kukho imizekelo engcono).
Ziziphi izinto ezixhomekeke kum? Iimbono zam, kufuneka uzikhathalele; iminqweno yam (zikhethe kwiimeko zam kunye nomxholo); ukulinganiselwa kwam (ndiyakwazi).

Ziziphi izinto ezingaxhomekekanga kuthi? Uluvo abanalo abanye ngathi, uthando lwabanye; kunye nempumelelo yabanye.

Umahluko 1: Ukungoneliseki kukaSapiens kuvela ekuncitshisweni kwezinto, kuba zibonwa kuphela kwiprism. Ke ngoko, icebisa ukudibanisa iiprism ezahlukeneyo zento yokufunda ukuqonda ngcono ukuntsonkotha kwayo kwaye ngenxa yoko isebenze ngcono. Ukucinga okubalulekileyo kuzalwe kokona kuthenjwa ngokubanzi kwiinkolelo nakwiingxelo, ikakhulu kuba kukwixesha apho isizathu sithatha indawo kaThixo. Ngesi sizathu, izama ukunika ubunzima obukhulu kwingqiqo yethu, ngeyona njongo iphambili yokufikelela ukuzimela komntu ngeenkolelo zomxholo wakhe.

Umahluko 2: Ukucinga okunzulu ngokubanzi kuzama ukusondela ekunyanisekeni koko ikufundayo ngokuhlalutya ngononophelo iingxoxo. Oku kokubini kukutsalwa (logic) kunye nohlalutyo (lokuqaphela). I-Sapiens izama ukusondela kubunyani bento eyifundayo ngoqhagamshelwano lolwazi kwaye, ukwenza njalo, iqhuba iindlela zayo ezintlanu.

Umahluko 3: Nangona kukho iindlela zeSapiens ezikhoyo ekucingeni okunzulu (umzekelo, ekuthelekiseni into yokufunda kunye nezinye ezifanayo ukwahlula iintsingiselo kakuhle), iSapiens iqhubela phambili. Oku kungenxa yokuba, ukongeza kwisimo sengqondo esigxekayo kunye nokucinga, indlela yokusebenza yeSapiens ivumela into yokufunda ukuba ibekwe ngokunxulumene nayo yonke (ithiyori yeenkqubo) enkosi ekuveliseni iindidi eziququzelela ukuqonda. Ukucinga okubalulekileyo, ngakolunye uhlangothi, kuphelile ngakumbi kwimbono enengqiqo kunye nohlalutyo lweengxabano kunye neendawo, ukuphepha ukucinga iingxabano ezibanzi okanye ezikhohlisayo.

Umahluko 4: I-Sapiens iququzelela ulwazi kwaye isinceda sifumane kwaye siqonde into efundwayo ngeekhabhinethi, iishelufu kunye needrowa, kodwa ayiniki okanye ivelise ulwazi, ngelixa ukucinga okuphangaleleyo kuqinisekisa ulwazi kunye nolwazi lokuqinisekisa ukunyaniseka kwento nganye.