Incazelo evamile: cabanga ngokumelene nento ethile noma othile futhi uyenze ibe sesidlangalaleni.

I-Etymology: igama elibucayi lisuselwa egameni elithi criterion (umqondo, umshini), impande yesiGreki efanayo kri (n) - (isuselwa kwele-Proto-Indo-European * kr̥n-, elithi ngesiLatini liphinde linikeze amagama anjengokuthi secretum, discernere) , enjongweni yayo yokubona iqiniso ngokubonisa, ngaphambilini, amanga noma iphutha (isivivinyo nephutha).

Kusukela kwelesiLatini elithi criticus-a-um, ngolimi lwezokwelapha oluchaza isimo esiyingozi noma esiwujuqu sesiguli nokuthi ku-philology ichaza ngowesilisa lowo ongumahluleli wemisebenzi yomoya futhi ngokungathathi hlangothi (ukugxeka) ichaza ifilosofi ebucayi. . Kuyimalimboleko yesiGreki () okusho ukuthi uyakwazi ukwahlulela, isichasiso esithathwe ngesijobelelo sobudlelwane -ikos.

Isenzo sibuye sihlotshaniswe nempande ye-Indo-European * skribh ekhombisa ukusika, ukuhlukanisa nokuqonda.

Ngokuya nge-Google: Iqoqo lemibono noma izahlulelo eziphendula ukuhlaziya futhi ezingaba zihle noma zibe zimbi.

Gxila ngokwe-RAE: Hlaziya into ngokuningiliziwe bese uyihlola ngokwemibandela yesifundo okukhulunywa ngaso.

Okubalulekile ngokusho kwe-RAE: Ithambekele ekwahluleleni amaqiniso nokuziphatha ngokuvamile ngendlela engafanele.

Ngokusho kweRAE: Ukwahlulela okushiwo, ngokuvamile esidlangalaleni, mayelana nombukiso, umsebenzi wobuciko, njll.

Ngokusho kweLarousse French Dictionary: Examen détaillé visant à établir la vérité, l'authenticité de quelque chose (Ukuhumusha: Ukuhlola okuningiliziwe okuzama ukuthola iqiniso, ubuqiniso bento ethile).

Ngokusho kwe-Oxford Languages: Linganisa (ithiyori noma umkhuba) ngendlela enemininingwane nehlaziyayo. Ukuhlaziywa okuningiliziwe nokuhlolwa kokuthile, ikakhulukazi ithiyori yemibhalo, yefilosofi, noma yezepolitiki.

Ngokuya nge-Google: Ikhono labantu lokwakha imibono nokumelela okungokoqobo emiqondweni yabo, kuhlobane komunye nomunye.

Kusukela ezincazelweni "zomcabango" kanye "nokugxeka / ukugxeka", singathola ukuthi ukucabanga okujulile kuyikhono lokwakha imibono nokumelela okungokoqobo (umcabango) kusukela ekuhlaziyeni ngokucophelela nokwahlulela lokho okucatshangwayo (ukubuyekeza). Ngamanye amazwi, kuyindlela yokuzama ukwedlula ukumelwa kwamanje kweqiniso futhi ufune ukulungisa ukuqonda kwakho ngochungechunge lwezinqubo zobuhlakani.Nokho, incazelo yegama elithi "ukucabanga okubucayi" ayikhawulelwe kungqikithi "umcabango" kanye "nokugxeka" Kunalokho, isetshenziswe ukuvusa ezinye izincazelo ezahlukene, okusidalela ubunzima bomqondo.. Ngakho-ke, sizokwethula okubaluleke kakhulu ngezansi ukuze sinikeze igama incazelo yethu.

Ngokuka-Ennis (1992), kuyinqubo yokucabangisisa ekufuneni iqiniso lemvelo lezinto Ngokuka-Elder & Paul (2003), bakuhumusha njengendlela yokucabanga nganoma yisiphi isihloko, okuqukethwe noma inkinga ngamaphethini noma izindinganiso zobuhlakani, ngenhloso yokuthuthukisa. izinga lomcabango. Kule ncazelo kunezingxenye ezintathu: ukuhlaziya, ukuhlola nokudala.

Ngokusho kwe-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IPgdBai7HxY
Isimo sengqondo sokuhlaziya nokuhlola izitatimende (imibono) esekelwe ekubuzeni imibuzo engokoqobo (ukubuza imibuzo), isimo sengqondo (ukungavumelani), ukukhathazeka kokuqonda izinto, ukuzimela (ikhono lokuzinikeza izinkambiso, ukuhlonza kanye nokuchaza ifilosofi yethu yokuphila). Akukhona ukugxeka okulimazayo, kuwukuhlaziya lokho okushiwo noma okulotshiwe.

Kwenziwa kanjani? Ungathathi lutho kalula, kodwa ngaphandle kokuwela ekungabazeni.

Ngokusho kukaGeoff Pynn (Northern Illinois University), ukucabanga okujulile kuwuhlobo lokucabanga lapho izimpikiswano ezithethelela esikucabangayo zihlolisiswe ngokucophelela. Qiniseka ukuthi sinezizathu ezinhle (hhayi ezokuziphatha, kodwa mhlawumbe eziyiqiniso) zokukholelwa kokuthile. Sinengqondo futhi sifuna ukucabangela ngokucabanga okujulile.

INational Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking ichaza ukucabanga okujulile njengenqubo ehlakaniphe kakhulu yokucabanga ngenkuthalo nangekhono, ukusebenzisa, ukuhlaziya, ukuhlanganisa kanye / noma ukuhlola ulwazi oluqoqwe noma olukhiqizwa ngokubheka, isipiliyoni, ukuzindla, ukucabanga noma ukuxhumana, njengesiqondiso senkolelo nesenzo ”. Inqubo yokucabanga ejulile ivimbela ingqondo yethu ekugxumeni ngokuqondile eziphethweni.

Kungafingqwa ngokuthi ukucabanga okujulile kuwukucabanga ngokucophelela, okuqondiswe emgomweni. NgokukaJosé Carlos Ruiz (isazi sefilosofi nosaziwayo), ikhono sonke esinalo lokuqonda umhlaba wethu ngokuhlobene nezwe labanye.

Ngokusho komkhakha wezemfundo: Ezimweni zemfundo, incazelo yokucabanga okujulile iveza uhlelo olusebenzayo lokufeza umgomo wezemfundo. Le nhloso yezemfundo ukuqashelwa, ukwamukelwa, kanye nokuqaliswa kwabafundi balezo zimiso namazinga. Lokhu kwamukelwa kanye nokuqaliswa, nakho kuhlanganisa ukuzuza ulwazi, amakhono kanye nezimo zomuntu ocabanga ngokujulile.

Kuwuhlobo lokucabanga oluvela ekucabangeni ngokujulile. Kokubili isenzo (cabanga) kanye nomphumela (umcabango) kudinga isimo sengqondo noma umoya wokugxeka ofaka ukungabaza kunoma yisiphi isitatimende noma umbono. Noma, ngamanye amazwi, kufanele kube nesifiso sokuqonda nokusondela eqinisweni lakho konke. Ukulandela lokhu, sizokwazi ukukhuluma ngomthamo ngokuthi izozama ukuxazulula ukungabaza noma ukungathembani ekuhlaziyeni (ukuhlaziya okubucayi) okwehlulelayo nokuhlola iqiniso, iqiniso noma isiphakamiso ngokuzimele. Umphumela wale nqubo uzoba umcabango ohambisanayo, owakhiwe ngezizathu eziqinisekisa ukufaneleka kwawo.

Ukucabanga okubucayi kuqala ekucabangeni kwethu kwemvelo ukuze senze ngendlela efanele.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, le ndlela yokucabanga ingamukelwa "njengefilosofi yokuphila", ngenxa yalokho ukuzimela nokuzimela kuzozuzwa ngoba sizokwazi ukuzinikeza izinkambiso, ukukhomba nokuchaza ubuthina futhi sisungule ifilosofi yethu yokuphila. . Yilo kanye leli khono elizamile ukukhuphula imfundo ezikhungweni nasemanyuvesi, lithatha ukucabanga okujulile ngokubaluleka kwalo kule ndawo.

Uma ukucabanga okujulile kucatshangelwa kabanzi ukumboza noma yikuphi ukucabanga ngokucophelela kunoma yisiphi isihloko nganoma iyiphi injongo, khona-ke ukuxazulula izinkinga nokwenza izinqumo kuzoba izinhlobo zokucabanga okujulile, uma kwenziwa ngokucophelela. Ngokomlando, “ukucabanga okubucayi” kanye “nokuxazulula izinkinga” kwakungamagama amabili ento efanayo. Uma ukucabanga okujulile kuthathwa kancane njengokuhlanganisa kuphela ukuhlolwa kwemikhiqizo yobuhlakani, khona-ke ngeke waneliseke ngokuxazulula izinkinga nokwenza izinqumo, ezakhayo.

Imigomo yokuqonda kanye nesicelo, njengoba amagama ebonisa, ihlanganisa ukuqonda nokusebenzisa ulwazi. Amakhono okucabanga okubalulekile namakhono avela ezigabeni ezintathu eziphakeme kakhulu zokuhlaziya, ukuhlanganisa, nokuhlola. Inguqulo efingqiwe ye-Bloom's taxonomy inikeza izibonelo ezilandelayo zezinjongo kulawa maleveli:

Izinjongo zokuhlaziya: ikhono lokubona ukucabanga okungakamenyezelwa, ikhono lokuhlola ukuvumelana kwemibono ngolwazi olunikeziwe kanye nokuqagela, ikhono lokubona amasu ajwayelekile asetshenziswa ekukhangiseni, inkulumo-ze nezinye izinto ezithonyayo Izinjongo Zokuhlanganisa: ukuhlela imibono kanye nezitatimende ngokubhala, ikhono lokuphakamisa izindlela zokuhlola i-hypothesis, ikhono lokuqamba nokuguqula imibono.

Izinjongo zokuhlola: ikhono lokukhombisa amanga anengqondo, ukuqhathanisa imibono eyinhloko ngamasiko athile.

Ukuhlaziya, ukuhlanganisa, kanye nezinjongo zokuhlola ze-taxonomy ye-Bloom kwaze kwabizwa ngokuhlanganyela ngokuthi "amakhono okucabanga asezingeni eliphezulu" (Tankersley 2005: ch. 5).

Nakuba ukulandelana kokuhlaziya-ukuhlanganisa-ukuhlola kulingisa izigaba zika-Dewey (1933) zokuhlaziya okunengqondo kwenqubo yokucabanga ecabangelayo, i-taxonomy ka-Bloom ngokuvamile ayizange yamukelwe njengemodeli yenqubo yokucabanga okujulile. Nakuba encoma inani elikhuthazayo lobudlelwano bakhe bezigaba ezinhlanu zezinhloso zomcabango esigabeni esisodwa sezinhloso zokukhumbula, u-Ennis (1981b) uphawula ukuthi izigaba azinayo indlela esebenza kuzo zonke izihloko nezizinda. Isibonelo, ukuhlaziywa kumakhemikhali kuhluke kakhulu ekuhlaziyweni ezincwadini kangangokuthi akukho phuzu ekufundiseni ukuhlaziywa njengohlobo lokucabanga olujwayelekile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-postulated hierarchy ibonakala ingabaza emazingeni aphezulu e-Bloom's taxonomy. Isibonelo, ikhono lokukhombisa amanga anengqondo alibonakali liyinkimbinkimbi ukwedlula ikhono lokuhlela izitatimende nemibono ngokubhala.

Inguqulo ebuyekeziwe ye-taxonomy ka-Bloom (u-Anderson et al. 2001) ihlukanisa inqubo yengqondo ehlosiwe enjongweni yemfundo (efana nokukwazi ukukhumbula, ukuqhathanisa, noma ukuqinisekisa) kokuqukethwe kolwazi lwenhloso ("ulwazi"), okungase kube iqiniso. ., okungokomqondo, kwenqubo noma kwe-metacognitive. Umphumela uwuhlu lwezinhlobo eziyisithupha eziyinhloko zezinqubo zengqondo eziholwa nguthisha: ukukhumbula, ukuqonda, ukusebenzisa, ukuhlaziya, ukuhlola, nokudala. Ababhali bawugcina umqondo wesigaba sokukhula kobunzima, kodwa babone ukunqwabelana okuthile, ngokwesibonelo, phakathi kokuqonda nokusebenzisa. Futhi bagcina umbono wokuthi ukucabanga okujulile nokuxazulula izinkinga kuhamba ngezinqubo eziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu zokuqonda. Amagama 'okucabanga okubucayi' kanye 'nokuxazulula izinkinga' abhala:

Ku-taxonomy ebuyekeziwe, izigaba ezimbalwa kuphela, ezifana ne-inferring, ezinamaphoyinti anele afanayo ukuze zithathwe njengekhono elicacile lokucabanga elingafundiswa futhi lihlolwe njengekhono elijwayelekile.

Ngakho-ke, lokho okubizwa ngokuthi "amakhono aphakeme okucabanga" emazingeni aphezulu okuhlaziya, ukuhlanganiswa nokuhlolwa kwe-taxonomy kungamakhono okucabanga okubucayi kuphela, nakuba engezi nemibandela evamile yokuhlola kwawo.

El ukucabanga okudala, idlula ukucabanga okujulile. Ukucabanga ngencazelo yento ethile noma umcimbi, njengaku-Ferryboat, kudinga umcabango wokudala ukuze kwakhiwe imibono enengqondo enencazelo. Ngokufanayo, ukucabanga ngombuzo wenqubomgomo, njengakuKhayidethi, kudinga ubuhlakani ukuze uqhamuke nezinketho. Kunalokho, ubuhlakani kunoma yimuphi umkhakha kufanele bulinganiswe ngokuhlaziya okusalungiswa komdwebo noma inoveli noma ithiyori yezibalo.

- Umehluko phakathi kokucabanga okujulile nomoya
Umoya wokugxeka ubhekisela esimweni sengqondo esingabazayo nesisola ubuqiniso bezitatimende, imibono noma iqiniso ngokwalo. Ngenxa yalesi sizathu, uMdala noPawulu babheka ukucabanga okujulile njengenye yamakhono ayisikhombisa engqondo okucabanga okujulile.

- Umehluko phakathi kokucabanga okujulile kanye nethiyori ejulile. Kuthathwe emhlanganweni wokufundisa e-Columbia University lapho ngakwazi khona ukubamba iqhaza. USolwazi Bernard E. Harcourt.
Ithiyori ebucayi ayifani nokucabanga okujulile. Ithiyori ebucayi isekelwe ezintweni eziyisithupha: ukuguquguquka komhlaziyi; ukubaluleka okumaphakathi kwemibono/imiqondo yemicabango njengoba kudingekile ukulamula ukuphikisa; indlela yokugxeka okungapheli; indlela yemibono ebucayi; ubudlelwano obuseduze kakhulu phakathi kwethiyori nokwenza (ukushintsha umhlaba); futhi uguqule umhlaba emcabangweni wenkululeko. Njengoba sibona, ithiyori egxekayo inengxenye yepolitiki eyengeziwe, exhumene noguquko lwesistimu njengoba yondliwa kakhulu ngokugxekwa kukaMarx. Ukucabanga okujulile, ngakolunye uhlangothi, kungasetshenziswa ekubuzeni izinto eziqondile noma ezilula, njengomusho.

- Umehluko phakathi kokucabanga okujulile kanye nefilosofi ebucayi: Bhala futhi uqedele nge-Kant. Kuthathwe emhlanganweni wokufundisa e-Columbia University lapho ngakwazi khona ukubamba iqhaza. USolwazi Bernard E. Harcourt.

Uma sikhuluma ngefilosofi ebucayi, isikhathi esiningi sibhekisela kuKant kanye nesiko laseKantian. Ifilosofi ebucayi kaKant yayinezindlela ezimbili, ngaphezu kwethiyori ebucayi. Ukungqubuzana kokufundwa kwalokhu kwaveza imibono eyahlukene yokuthi kuyini ukugxeka. E-Kant, kwakunendlela yokuxhumanisa umqondo wokugxeka nombono wesiLatini wokugxeka (umehluko, umehluko phakathi kweqiniso namanga, inkohliso). Ukudala lo mehluko kuwumsebenzi oncika endleleni yokuzama ukuthola iqiniso. Umsebenzi wesibili uncike ekutheni kungenzeka yini ukwazi lokho okucatshangwa ukuthi kuyiqiniso futhi ngesikhathi esifanayo lezi zakhiwo zaseKantian zemibandela yokwazi ziphambukisa umqondo wokuthi into ethile ingaziwa kuphela ngesimo sokuba nokwenzeka komlando, ukuze lokho okumelwe sikufunde. uhlu lozalo, izimo kanye namathuba okucabanga njengoba senza namuhla.

Kulezi zichasiselo singaqonda ukuthi ukucabanga okujulile kukaDewey kusondelene kakhulu nalokhu kwamanje okuvela emcabangweni kaKant wokuthi, ngaphansi kwesiqubulo esithi sapere aude (nesibindi sokwazi), uzama ukuhlukanisa phakathi kokuyiqiniso nokungamanga esizathwini.

Kodwa-ke, asikwazi ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ziyinto efanayo, njengoba ukucabanga okujulile kunweba lo mbono we-Kantian ngezinye izici ezisebenzayo, ezizayo nezokudala.

Uma umnyombo wokucabanga okujulile, njengoba sibonile endleleni ye-semantic, kuwukucabanga okucabangayo okuqondiswe emgomweni, imibono yakho ingahluka ngokuya kobubanzi obucatshangwayo, inhloso yakho okucatshangwayo, imibandela yomuntu, kanye nomkhawulo womuntu wokucophelela. ingxenye yokucabanga umuntu agxile kuyo.

Ngokusho kobubanzi bayo:
- Kukhawulelwe kusisekelo sokubhekwa nokuhlola (Dewey)
- Ifinyelela ekuhlolweni kwemikhiqizo yomcabango.

Ngokwenhloso yakho:
- Ukwakhiwa kwesinqumo
- Bavumela izenzo nezinkolelo njengomphumela wenqubo yokucabanga okujulile.

Ngokwemibandela yokuqaphela (Lezi zicaciso ezihlukile zezindinganiso zokucabanga okujulile azihambisani nazo):
- "Ukuqondiswa ngokwengqondo" (Scriven noPaul 1987)
- "enengqondo" (Ennis 1991). UStanovich no-Stanovich (2010) bahlongoza ukusekela umqondo wokucabanga okujulile emcabangweni wokuhluzeka kwengqondo, abawuqonda njengenhlanganisela ye-epistemic rationality (ukujwayela izinkolelo emhlabeni) kanye nokuhluzeka kwezinsimbi (ukuthuthukisa ukugcwaliseka komgomo); umcabango ogxekayo, ngokombono wakhe, ungumuntu "onokuthambekela kokudlula izimpendulo ezingafaneleki zomqondo ozimele."
- "unekhono" (Lipman 1987) - "ukucatshangelwa kwanoma iyiphi inkolelo noma uhlobo lolwazi olucatshangelwayo ekukhanyeni kwezisekelo ezilusekelayo kanye neziphetho ezengeziwe oluthambekele kuzo" (Dewey 1910, 1933);

Ngokusho kwengxenye yomcabango:
- Ukumiswa kokwahlulela ngesikhathi sokucabanga (uDewey noMcpeck)
- Uphenyo ngenkathi ukuqulwa kwecala kusamisiwe (Bailin and Battersby 2009)
- Umphumela wesinqumo (Facione 1990a)
- Ukusabela okungokomzwelo okwalandela kulesi sahlulelo (Siegel 1988).

Ukuthi kuhlanganisa noma cha ingxenye yokuziphatha
- UDewey, njengabacabangi abaningi, uhlukanisa ukucabanga okujulile nokuthuthukiswa kokuqhathanisa komphakathi phakathi kwezingane zesikole.
- U-Ennis wengeza ekucabangeni okujulile incazelo yokuthi kubalulekile ukukwazi ukukhathalela isithunzi nokufaneleka komuntu ngamunye.

Bheka https://medicoplus.com/psicologia/tipos-pensamiento

Ukucabanga okubucayi kungenye yezinhlobo ezingu-24 zokucabanga eziyinhloko futhi kusebenzisana nezinye izinhlobo zokucabanga, njenge:
- Ukucabanga Conceptual
- Ukucabanga ngemibuzo
- Ukucabanga kophenyo
- Ukucabanga okuhlukene
- Ukucabanga okunengqondo
- Systems ukucabanga
- Ukucabanga okucabangisisayo
- Ukucabanga deductive

Ukucabanga okubucayi kuthatha indawo ebalulekile ngaphakathi kwemisinga ye-epistemological, kuba ngesinye sezikhundla ezinhlanu mayelana nokwethemba ukuthi kungenzeka ukwazi.
‍
A) I-Dogmatism
B) Ukungabaza
C) I-Subjectivism kanye ne-relativism
D) I-Pragmatism
E) Ukugxeka noma ukucabanga ngokujulile

Kuyisikhundla esiphambene nenkolelo-mbono kwazise ibuzwa yimithombo yolwazi ngokungathembani ukuze ikwazi ukuqinisekisa ngesiqiniseko ukuthi iyakuqonda ekwaziyo nokuthi lolu lwazi luthembekile.

Ukucabanga okubucayi kuhlobene eduze ifilosofi, kuyingxenye yesizathu sokuba yilo. Ifilosofi ayilutho ngaphandle kokufuna ulwazi olusekelwe ekubuzeni imibuzo eyisisekelo esiza ukuzimisa futhi sisondele kuyo. Angabonakala ngaphansi kwale ncazelo afanayo, ngomehluko wokuthi ifilosofi iyakha futhi ihlele ukucabanga okujulile emkhakheni wezemfundo.

Ukwengeza, singabona ukucabanga okubucayi kwezinye iziyalo nakwezinye izinhlelo zokusebenza, nakuba kuncane okwenzekayo kufilosofi, njengobuntatheli, noma ijaji okufanele lihlole futhi ligcine ulwazi lweqiniso ukuze lithole ukwahlulela okulungile.

UJohn Dewey yethula igama elithi "critical thinking" njengegama lenhloso yemfundo, ethi ehlotshaniswa nesimo sengqondo esingokwesayensi.

Wakuchaza njengokuthi "Ukucatshangelwa okusebenzayo, okuphikelelayo nokucophelelayo kwanoma iyiphi inkolelo noma uhlobo lolwazi olucatshangelwayo ekukhanyeni izisekelo ezilusekelayo kanye neziphetho ezilandelayo oluthambekele kuzo."

Ngakho, uDewey wakuchaza njengomkhuba wokubheka isimo sengqondo esingokwesayensi. Izingcaphuno zakhe ezinde ezivela kuFrancis Bacon, uJohn Locke, noJohn Stuart Mill zibonisa ukuthi wayengeyena umuntu wokuqala ukuphakamisa ukuthuthukiswa kwesimo sengqondo sesayensi njengomgomo wezemfundo.

Imibono kaDewey yasetshenziswa ezinye zezikole ezabamba iqhaza ocwaningweni lweminyaka eyisishiyagalombili ngawo-1930 olwaluxhaswe yi-Association for Progressive Education in America. Kulolu cwaningo, amanyuvesi angama-300 avumile ukucatshangelwa abafundi abathweswe iziqu abavela ezikoleni eziphakeme ezikhethiwe ezingama-30 noma izinhlelo zesikole ezweni lonke abazame okuqukethwe nezindlela zokufundisa, noma ngabe abathweswe iziqu babengaliqedanga ikharikhulamu yesikole samabanga aphezulu. Inhloso eyodwa yocwaningo kwakuwukuthola ngokuhlola nokuhlola ukuthi izikole zamabanga aphezulu e-United States zingayisiza kanjani intsha ngempumelelo (Aikin 1942). Ikakhulukazi, izikhulu zesikole zazikholelwa ukuthi abantu abasha embusweni wentando yeningi kufanele bahlakulele umkhuba wokucabanga okucabangelayo kanye nekhono lokuxazulula izinkinga (Aikin 1942: 81). Ngakho-ke, umsebenzi wabafundi ekilasini wawuvame ukuba yinkinga okufanele ixazululwe kunesifundo okufanele sifundwe. Ikakhulukazi ezifundweni zezibalo nesayensi, izikole bezilwela ukunikeza abafundi ulwazi lokucabanga okucacile nokunengqondo njengoba bexazulula izinkinga.

Ukucabanga okubucayi noma okucabangelayo kuvela ekuboneni inkinga. Kuyikhwalithi yokucabanga esebenza ngomzamo wokuxazulula inkinga futhi ifinyelele esiphethweni esincane esisekelwa yiyo yonke idatha etholakalayo. Ngempela Kuyinqubo yokuxazulula izinkinga edinga ukusetshenziswa kobuhlakani bokudala, ukwethembeka kobuhlakani, nokwahlulela okuhle. Kuyisisekelo sendlela yocwaningo lwesayensi. Impumelelo yentando yeningi incike kakhulu ekuzimiseleni nasemandleni ezakhamizi ukuthi acabange ngokujulile nangokucabangisisa ngezinkinga okumele zibhekane nazo, futhi ukwenza ngcono izinga lokucabanga kwazo kungenye yezinjongo eziyinhloko zemfundo. (I-Progressive Education Association Commission on the Relationship between School and University, 1943: 745–746)

Ngo-1933, uDewey washicilela uhlelo lwakhe olubhalwe kabusha kakhulu Indlela Esicabanga Ngayo, nesihlokwana esithi "Ukuqinisekisa kabusha ubudlelwano bokucabanga okubonisayo nenqubo yemfundo." Nakuba ukwakhiwa kabusha kugcina ukwakheka okuyisisekelo nokuqukethwe kwencwadi yokuqala, uDewey wenza izinguquko eziningi.

Wabhala kabusha futhi wenza kwaba lula ukuhlaziya kwakhe okunengqondo kwenqubo yokuzindla, wenza imibono yakhe yacaca futhi yachazwa kakhudlwana, esikhundleni samagama athi 'induction' nelithi 'deduction' ngamagama athi 'ukulawula idatha nobufakazi' kanye 'nokulawula ukucabanga nemiqondo', wanezela eminye imifanekiso, wahlela kabusha izahluko, futhi wabukeza izingxenye eziphathelene nokufundisa ukuze zibonise izinguquko ezenzeka ezikoleni kusukela ngo-1910.

U-Glaser (1941) ubika kuthisisi yakhe yobudokotela indlela nemiphumela yokuhlolwa kokuthuthukiswa kokucabanga okujulile okwenziwa ekwindla ka-1938. Uchaza ukucabanga okujulile njengoba u-Dewey echaza ukucabanga okucabangelayo:

Ukucabanga okujulile kudinga umzamo ophikelelayo wokuhlola noma iyiphi inkolelo noma uhlobo lolwazi okuthiwa lucatshangelwe ubufakazi obusekelayo kanye neziphetho ezengeziwe okuthambekele kuzo. (Glaser 1941:6; cf. Dewey 1910:6; Dewey 1933:9).

Isici sokucabanga okujulile esibonakala sisengozini enkulu ekuthuthukisweni okujwayelekile isimo sengqondo sokuzimisela ukucabangela ngokujulile izinkinga nezindaba eziwela ngaphansi kokuhlangenwe nakho komuntu siqu. Isimo sengqondo sokufuna ubufakazi bezinkolelo singaphansi kokudluliselwa okuvamile. Ukuthuthukiswa kwekhono lokusebenzisa ukucabanga okunengqondo nezindlela zocwaningo, nokho, kubonakala kuhlobene ngokuqondile, futhi kunqunyelwe ngempela, ukutholwa kolwazi olubalulekile namaqiniso ahlobene nenkinga noma isihloko umuntu aya kuso. (I-Glaser 1941: 175)

Imiphumela yokuhlolwa okuphindaphindiwe nokuziphatha okubonakala kwabonisa ukuthi abafundi abaseqenjini lokungenela balondoloza ukukhula kwabo emandleni okucabanga ngokujulile okungenani izinyanga eziyisithupha ngemva kokufundiswa okukhethekile.

Ngo-1948, iqembu labahloli basenyuvesi yase-US banquma ukuthuthukisa intela yemigomo yezemfundo ngesilulumagama esivamile ababengasisebenzisa ukuze baxhumane mayelana nezinto zokuhlola. Eyokuqala yalezi zincwadi zentela, yesizinda somqondo, yavela ngo-1956 (Bloom et al. 1956) futhi yayihlanganisa nezinhloso zokucabanga ezibucayi. Yaziwa ngokuthi yi-Bloom's taxonomy. I-taxonomy yesibili, yesizinda esithintekayo (Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia 1964), kanye ne-taxonomy yesithathu, yesizinda se-psychomotor (Simpson 1966-67), yavela kamuva. I-taxonomi ngayinye ilandelana ngokwezigaba, futhi ukuzuza umgomo wemfundo ephakeme kuthiwa kudinga ukufezwa kwezinjongo zemfundo eziphansi ezifanayo.

I-taxonomy ka-Bloom inezigaba eziyisithupha eziyinhloko. Ukusuka kokuncane kuye kokukhulu, ulwazi, ukuqonda, ukusebenzisa, ukuhlaziya, ukuhlanganisa kanye nokuhlola. Ngaphakathi kwesigaba ngasinye, kunezigatshana, nazo ezihlelwe ngokohlelo kusukela kwezemfundo ngaphambi kwezemfundo kamuva. Isigaba esiphansi kunazo zonke, nakuba sibizwa ngokuthi “ulwazi”, sinqunyelwe ezinhlosweni zokukhumbula ulwazi kanye nokukwazi ukukhumbula noma ukukubona, ngaphandle koshintsho olukhulu ngaphezu kokuluhlela (Bloom et al. 1956: 28-29). Izigaba ezinhlanu eziphezulu zibizwa ngokuthi "amakhono namakhono engqondo" (Bloom et al. 1956: 204). Leli gama lingelinye nje igama lamakhono okucabanga okujulile namakhono:

Nakuba ulwazi noma ulwazi luqashelwa njengomphumela obalulekile wemfundo, bambalwa kakhulu othisha abanganeliseka ngokubheka lokhu njengomphumela oyinhloko noma ukuphela komyalelo. Okudingekayo wubufakazi obuthile bokuthi abafundi bangenza okuthile ngolwazi lwabo, okungukuthi, bangalusebenzisa lolo lwazi ezimweni nasezinkingeni ezintsha. Abafundi kulindeleke ukuthi bathole amasu ajwayelekile okubhekana nezinkinga ezintsha nezinto ezintsha. Ngakho-ke, kulindelekile ukuthi lapho umfundi ehlangabezana nenkinga noma isimo esisha, akhethe indlela efanele yokuyihlasela futhi anikeze ulwazi oludingekayo, kokubili amaqiniso nezimiso. Lokhu kuye kwabizwa ngokuthi "ukucabanga okubucayi" ngabanye, "ukucabanga okubonisayo" nguDewey nabanye, "nokuxazulula izinkinga" ngabanye.

Imigomo yokuqonda kanye nesicelo, njengoba amagama ebonisa, ihlanganisa ukuqonda nokusebenzisa ulwazi. Amakhono okucabanga okubalulekile namakhono avela ezigabeni ezintathu eziphakeme kakhulu zokuhlaziya, ukuhlanganisa, nokuhlola. Inguqulo efingqiwe ye-Bloom's taxonomy (Bloom et al. 1956: 201-207) inikeza izibonelo ezilandelayo zokuhlosiwe kulawa mazinga:

Izinjongo zokuhlaziya: ikhono lokubona ukucabanga okungakamenyezelwa, ikhono lokuhlola ukuvumelana kwemibono ngolwazi olunikeziwe kanye nokuqagela, ikhono lokubona amasu ajwayelekile asetshenziswa ekukhangiseni, inkulumo-ze nezinye izinto ezithonyayo Izinjongo Zokuhlanganisa: ukuhlela imibono kanye nezitatimende ngokubhala, ikhono lokuphakamisa izindlela zokuhlola i-hypothesis, ikhono lokuqamba nokuguqula imibono.

Izinjongo zokuhlola: ikhono lokukhombisa amanga anengqondo, ukuqhathanisa imibono eyinhloko ngamasiko athile.

Ukuhlaziya, ukuhlanganisa, kanye nezinjongo zokuhlola ze-taxonomy ye-Bloom kwaze kwabizwa ngokuhlanganyela ngokuthi "amakhono okucabanga asezingeni eliphezulu" (Tankersley 2005: ch. 5). Nakuba ukulandelana kokuhlaziya-ukuhlanganisa-ukuhlola kulingisa izigaba zika-Dewey (1933) zokuhlaziya okunengqondo kwenqubo yokucabanga ecabangelayo, ngokuvamile akuzange kuthathwe njengemodeli yenqubo yokucabanga okujulile. Nakuba encoma inani elikhuthazayo lobudlelwano bakhe bezigaba ezinhlanu zezinhloso zomcabango esigabeni esisodwa sezinhloso zokukhumbula, u-Ennis (1981b) uphawula ukuthi izigaba azinayo indlela esebenza kuzo zonke izihloko nezizinda.. Isibonelo, ukuhlaziywa kumakhemikhali kuhluke kakhulu ekuhlaziyweni ezincwadini kangangokuthi akukho phuzu ekufundiseni ukuhlaziywa njengohlobo lokucabanga olujwayelekile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-postulated hierarchy ibonakala ingabaza emazingeni aphezulu e-Bloom's taxonomy. Isibonelo, ikhono lokukhombisa amanga anengqondo alibonakali liyinkimbinkimbi ukwedlula ikhono lokuhlela izitatimende nemibono ngokubhala.

Inguqulo ebuyekeziwe ye-Bloom's taxonomy (U-Anderson et al. 2001) wehlukanisa inqubo yengqondo ehloselwe injongo yezemfundo (efana nokukwazi ukukhumbula, ukuqhathanisa noma ukuqinisekisa) kusukela kokuqukethwe kolwazi lwenjongo ("ulwazi"), okungaba iqiniso, umqondo, inqubo noma i-metacognitive. Umphumela yilokhu okubizwa ngokuthi "Ithebula Le-Taxonomy" elinemigqa emine yezinhlobo zokuqukethwe kolwazi namakholomu ayisithupha ezinhlobo eziyisithupha eziyinhloko zezinqubo zokuqonda. Ababhali baqamba izinhlobo zezinqubo zokuqonda ngezenzo, ukukhombisa isimo sabo njengemisebenzi yengqondo. Qamba kabusha isigaba 'sokuqonda' ukuze 'uqonde' kanye nesigaba 'sokuhlanganiswa' ukuze 'udale', futhi ushintshe ukuhleleka kokuhlanganisa nokuhlola.. Umphumela uwuhlu lwezinhlobo eziyisithupha eziyinhloko zezinqubo zengqondo eziholwa nguthisha: ukukhumbula, ukuqonda, ukusebenzisa, ukuhlaziya, ukuhlola, nokudala. Ababhali bawugcina umqondo wesigaba sokukhula kobunzima, kodwa babone ukunqwabelana okuthile, ngokwesibonelo, phakathi kokuqonda nokusebenzisa. Futhi bagcina umbono wokuthi ukucabanga okujulile nokuxazulula izinkinga kuhamba ngezinqubo eziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu zokuqonda. Amagama 'okucabanga okubucayi' kanye 'nokuxazulula izinkinga' abhala:

Asetshenziswa kakhulu futhi ajwayele ukuba 'amatshe amakhona' okugcizelela ikharikhulamu. Kokubili ngokuvamile kufaka phakathi imisebenzi ehlukahlukene engahlukaniswa ibe amaseli ahlukene kuThebula le-Taxonomy. Okusho ukuthi, kunoma isiphi isimo, izinjongo ezibandakanya ukuxazulula izinkinga nokucabanga okujulile cishe zidinga izinqubo zokuqonda ezigabeni ezimbalwa kubukhulu benqubo. Isibonelo, ukucabanga ngokujulile ngesihloko cishe kuhilela ulwazi oluthile lomqondo ukuze uhlaziye isihloko. Khona-ke umuntu angahlola imibono eyahlukene ngokwemibandela futhi mhlawumbe akhe umbono wenoveli kodwa ovikelekayo ngalesi sihloko. (U-Anderson et al. 2001: 269-270; omalukeke bangempela)

Ku-taxonomy ebuyekeziwe, izigaba ezimbalwa kuphela, ezifana ne-inferring, ezinamaphoyinti anele afanayo ukuze zithathwe njengekhono elicacile lokucabanga elingafundiswa futhi lihlolwe njengekhono elijwayelekile.

Umnikelo womlando wokufunda kwefilosofi ngomqondo wokucabanga okujulile kwakuyindatshana yango-1962 ku-Harvard Educational Review kaRobert H. Ennis, enesihloko esithi “Umqondo Wokucabanga Okubalulekile: Isisekelo Esihlongozwayo Sokucwaninga Ekufundiseni nasekuhloleni ikhono lokucabanga elibucayi ”(Ennis 1962). U-Ennis uthathe njengesiqalo sakhe umcabango wokucabanga okujulile owethulwe ngu-B. Othanel Smith:

Sizocabangela ukucabanga ngokwemisebenzi ehilelekile ekuhloleni izitatimende thina, noma abanye, esingase sizikholelwe. Esinye isikhulumi sithi, isibonelo, "Inkululeko isho ukuthi izinqumo emzamweni wokukhiqiza waseMelika azenziwa emqondweni we-bureaucracy kodwa emakethe ekhululekile." Manje, uma besingathola ukuthi lesi sitatimende sisho ukuthini futhi sinqume ukuthi siyasemukela noma siyasenqaba, sizobe singena emcabangweni othi, ngenxa yokuntuleka kwegama elingcono, sizobiza ukucabanga okujulile. Uma umuntu efisa ukusho ukuthi lokhu kumane kuwuhlobo lokuxazulula izinkinga lapho inhloso kuwukunquma ukuthi lokho okushiwo kuthembekile noma cha, ngeke siphikisane. Kodwa ngezinjongo zethu sikhetha ukukubiza ngokuthi ukucabanga okujulile. (Smith 1953: 130)

Engeza ingxenye evamile kulo mbono, u-Ennis uchaze ukucabanga okujulile njengokuthi "ukuhlola okulungile kwezitatimende" (Ennis 1962: 83). Ngokusekelwe kule ncazelo, uhlukanise “izici” ezingu-12 zokucabanga okujulile okuhambisana nezinhlobo noma izici zezitatimende, njengokwahlulela ukuthi isitatimende sokubheka sithembekile yini futhi sibamba incazelo yesitatimende. Ubalule ukuthi akubandakanyi izitatimende zokwahlulela zenani. Edabula izici ezingu-12, wahlukanisa izinhlangothi ezintathu zokucabanga okujulile: ingqondo (hlulela ubudlelwano phakathi kwezincazelo zamagama nemisho), nenqubo (ulwazi lwemibandela yokwahlulela izitatimende) kanye ne-pragmatic (umbono wenhloso ewumsuka). Esicini ngasinye, u-Ennis uchaze ubukhulu obusebenzayo, okuhlanganisa nemibandela.

Ngawo-1980 kanye nawo-1983 kwaba nokwanda kokunaka ekuthuthukisweni kwamakhono okucabanga. Kusukela yasungulwa ngo-XNUMX, iNgqungquthela Yamazwe Ngamazwe Yokucabanga Okubalulekile Nezinguquko Zezemfundo ihehe amashumi ezinkulungwane zothisha bawo wonke amazinga. Ngo-XNUMX, i-College Entrance Examination Board yamemezela ukucabanga njengenye yamakhono ayisithupha ayisisekelo ezemfundo abafundi basekolishi abawadingayo. Iminyango yezemfundo e-United States nasemhlabeni wonke yaqala ukufaka imigomo yokucabanga eziqondisweni zayo zekharikhulamu yezifundo zesikole.

Ukucabanga okubucayi kuyinqubo yokucabanga ngemibono noma izimo ukuze uziqonde ngokugcwele, uhlonze imithelela yazo, ukhiphe isinqumo, kanye/noma uqondise ekuthathweni kwezinqumo. Ukucabanga okubucayi kuhlanganisa amakhono anjengokubuza, ukubikezela, ukuhlaziya, ukuhlanganisa, ukuhlola imibono, ukuhlonza amanani nezinkinga, ukuthola ukuchema, nokuhlukanisa phakathi kokunye. Abafundi abafundiswa lawa makhono baba abacabangi abahlolisisayo abakwazi ukudlulela eziphethweni ezikha phezulu baye ekuqondeni okujulile kwezinkinga abazihlolayo. Bangakwazi ukubamba iqhaza ohlelweni locwaningo lapho behlola khona imibuzo eyinkimbinkimbi nenhlangothi eziningi, kanye nemibuzo okungenzeka zingabi khona izimpendulo ezicacile zayo.

ISweden ithwesa izikole umthwalo wemfanelo wokuqinisekisa ukuthi umfundi ngamunye oqeda isikole esiyimpoqo “angasebenzisa ukucabanga okujulile futhi azenzele ngokuzimela imibono esekelwe olwazini nasekucatshangelweni kokuziphatha”. Ezingeni lenyuvesi, igagasi elisha lezincwadi zezethulo ezinengqondo, ezaqalwa nguKahane (1971), zasebenzisa amathuluzi omqondo ezinkingeni zesimanje zenhlalo nezombusazwe. Ekuvukeni kwakhe, amakolishi namanyuvesi aseNyakatho Melika aguqule izifundo zawo ezinengqondo zesingeniso zaba inkambo yesevisi yemfundo evamile enesihloko esithi "ukucabanga okubucayi" noma "ukucabanga." Ngo-1980, abaphathiswa bamanyuvesi kanye namakolishi eSifundazwe sase-California bagunyaza inkambo yokucabanga okujulile njengemfuneko yemfundo evamile, echazwe ngezansi: Umyalelo wokucabanga okubalulekile kufanele uklanywe ukuze kuqondwe ukuhlobana kolimi nenkulumo. ikhono lokuhlaziya, ukugxeka nokuvikela imibono, ukucabanga ngendlela ekhohlisayo futhi encishanayo, nokufinyelela eziphethweni eziyiqiniso noma zokwahlulela ezisekelwe ekucabangeleni okuqinile okuthathwe ezitatimendeni ezingaguquki zolwazi noma inkolelo. Ubuncane bekhono obulindelwe lapho kuqedwa ngempumelelo imfundo yokucabanga okujulile kufanele kube ikhono lokwehlukanisa amaqiniso nokwahlulela, inkolelo nolwazi, kanye namakhono ezinqubweni zokuqala zokufundisa nezokudonsa, okuhlanganisa nokuqonda amanga asemthethweni nangakahleleki olimi nomcabango. (Dumke 1980)

Kusukela ngoDisemba 1983, i-Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking iye yaxhasa amaseshini emihlanganweni emithathu yaminyaka yonke yezigaba ze-American Philosophical Association. Ngo-December 1987, I-American Philosophical Association's Pre-College Philosophy Committee yamema uPeter Facione ukuba enze ucwaningo oluhlelekile mayelana nesimo samanje sokucabanga okujulile kanye nokuhlolwa kokucabanga okujulile. U-Facione uhlanganise iqembu lezinye izazi zefilosofi nezazi zokusebenza kwengqondo ezingama-46 ukuze libambe iqhaza kwinqubo ye-Delphi eyindilinga, umkhiqizo wayo owawunesihloko esithi Ukucabanga Okubalulekile: Isitatimende Sokuvumelana Kochwepheshe Sokuhlola Nezinjongo Zemfundo (Facione 1990a). Lesi sitatimende sibala amakhono nezimo okufanele zibe yizinjongo zezifundo zeziqu ezisezingeni eliphansi ekucabangeni okujulile.

Abaholi banamuhla bamabhizinisi nabezepolitiki bazwakalisa ukweseka kwabo ukucabanga okujulile njengomgomo wezemfundo. Enkulumeni yakhe Yesimo SeNyunyana yango-2014 (Obama 2014), uMongameli waseMelika u-Barack Obama wabala ukucabanga okujulile njengelinye lamakhono ayisithupha omnotho omusha aqondiswe ohlelweni lwakhe lweRace to the Top. Isihloko esikumagazini webhizinisi i-Forbes sabika ukuthi ikhono lokuqala lomsebenzi, elitholakala emisebenzini eyisishiyagalolunye kweyishumi edingeka kakhulu, kwakuwukucabanga okujulile, okuchazwa “njengokusebenzisa ingqondo nokucabanga ukuze kutholakale amandla nobuthakathaka bezixazululo. , iziphetho noma izindlela zezinkinga ". Ukuphendula izimangalo ezinjalo, i-European Commission ixhase ngezimali "Critical Thinking in European Higher Education Curricula", iphrojekthi yocwaningo lwamazwe ayisishiyagalolunye ukuze kuthuthukiswe imihlahlandlela yekhwalithi yokufundiswa kwekhwalithi ekucabangeni okujulile ezikhungweni zemfundo ephakeme zaseYurophu, ekutholweni kwabacwaningi 'okuyisisekelo' amakhono okucabanga okubalulekile kanye nezimo abaqashi abazilindele kwabasanda kuthola iziqu (Domínguez 10a; 2018b).

Ukufana 1: Kokubili kusekelwe esihlokweni esifanayo: ukungakwethembi ulwazi nolwazi, isifiso sokusondela eqinisweni/ukuqonda.

Ukufana 2: Isikhundla sabo sikwenye imfundiso eyeqisayo, njengoba befuna ukuziqeda.

Ukufana 3: Zombili lezi ziphakamiso zikubona kubalulekile ukuzibuza ngomuntu owazi ngokuzihlaziya.

Ukufana 4: Zombili zinenhloso engokoqobo, zifuna ukuxazulula izinkinga, ukungqubuzana nokwenza kangcono.

Kwenzenjani? “Ikhono esinalo sonke lokuqonda umhlaba wethu ngokuhlangana nomhlaba wabanye. Kunamazinga ahlukene." Izinto ezimbili ezibalulekile:
‍
- Izimo ezisimisayo futhi asikwazi ukukhetha.
- Kudingeka ukufundisa ukuze ubone ngale komongo. Ibalulekile ukuze umcabango uguquke. Ikhono lokubuza izinto liqinile, aliguquki.

Indlela yokuhlobanisa ifilosofi nokucabanga okujulile?
AmaStoyiku (okungaxoxwa ngakho, kunezibonelo ezingcono).
Yiziphi izinto ezincike kimi? Imibono yami, kufanele uyinakekele; izifiso zami (zikhethe ezimweni zami nasemongweni wami); ukulinganiselwa kwami ​​(ngiyakwazi).

Yiziphi izinto ezingancikile kithi? Umbono abanye abanawo ngathi, uthando lwabanye; kanye nezimpumelelo zabanye.

Umehluko 1: Ukunganeliseki kwama-Sapiens kubangelwa ukuncishiswa kwezinto, njengoba zibonakala kuphela ku-prism. Ngakho-ke, uhlongoza ukuxhuma ama-prism ahlukene ento yocwaningo ukuze aqonde kangcono ubunkimbinkimbi bayo futhi ngenxa yalokho enze kangcono. Ukucabanga okubucayi kuvela ekwethembeni okujwayelekile kuya ezinkolelweni naseziqinisweni, ikakhulukazi ngoba kusesikhathini lapho isizathu sithatha indawo kaNkulunkulu. Ngenxa yalesi sizathu, izama ukunikeza isisindo esikhulu ekucabangeni kwethu, ngenjongo yokugcina yokuzuza ukuzimela komuntu ngamunye ngezinkolelo zengqikithi yakhe.

Umehluko 2: ukucabanga okujulile ngokuvamile kuzama ukulinganisa ubuqiniso balokho ekufundayo ngokuhlaziya ngokucophelela izimpikiswano. Kokubili kuwukuhlaziya okudonswayo (okunengqondo) kanye nokuhlaziya (ukubheka). I-Sapiens izama ukubheka ubuqiniso balokho ekufundayo ngokuxhuma kolwazi futhi, ngenxa yalokhu, yenza izindlela zayo ezinhlanu.

Umehluko 3: Nakuba kunezindlela zama-Sapiens ezikhona ekucabangeni okujulile (isibonelo, ekuqhathaniseni into efundwayo nezinye ezifanayo ukuze zihlukanise kahle izincazelo), i-Sapiens iqhubekela phambili. Lokhu kungenxa yokuthi, ngaphezu kokuba nesimo sengqondo nokucabanga okujulile, indlela yokwenza ye-Sapiens ivumela into ocwaningwayo ukuthi ibe khona ngokuphathelene nayo yonke (ithiyori yezinhlelo) sibonga ukukhiqizwa kwezigaba ezenza kube lula ukuqonda. Ukucabanga okubucayi, ngakolunye uhlangothi, kuphelele kakhulu ngokombono onengqondo ngokuhlaziywa kwezimpikiswano nezakhiwo, ukugwema ukuthatha izimpikiswano ezinwebekayo noma ezingamanga.

Umehluko 4: I-Sapiens i-oda ulwazi futhi isisiza ukuba sithole futhi siqonde into efundwayo ngokusebenzisa amakhabethe, amashalofu namadrowa, kodwa ayinikezi noma ayikhiqizi ulwazi, kuyilapho ukucabanga okujulile kuqinisekisa ulwazi nolwazi ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuba yiqiniso kwalokhu ngakunye. .